Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College 8-1983 An Investigation of the Impact of Learning Theory on Training and Conditions of Training in the Corporate Environment Carolyn Collins-Bondon Western Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations Part of the Adult and Continuing Education Commons Recommended Citation Collins-Bondon, Carolyn, "An Investigation of the Impact of Learning Theory on Training and Conditions of Training in the Corporate Environment" (1983). Dissertations. 2430. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/2430 This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact maira.bundza@wmich.edu.
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE IMPACT OF LEARNING THEORY ON TRAINING AND CONDITIONS OF TRAINING IN THE CORPORATE ENVIRONMENT by C aro ly n C o llin s-b o n d o n.a D is s e r ta tio n S u b m itted to th e F a c u lty o f The G rad u ate C o lle g e in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e re q u ire m e n ts f o r th e D egree o f D o c to r o f E d u catio n D epartm ent o f E d u c a tio n a l L e a d e rsh ip W estern M ichigan U n iv e r s ity K alam azoo, M ichigan A ugust 1983
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE IMPACT OF LEARNING THEORY ON TRAINING AND CONDITIONS OF TRAINING IN THE CORPORATE ENVIRONMENT C aro ly n C o llin s-b o n d o n, Ed.D. W estern M ichigan U n iv e r s ity, 1983 The p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y was to d ete rm in e th e e x te n t to which know ledge and use o f le a r n in g th e o ry a r e r e f l e c te d in c o r p o ra te t r a i n i n g p ro g ram s. The l i t e r a t u r e rev iew was c o n c e n tra te d i n th r e e areas, namely: (1) n ature and q u ality of tra in in g programs, (2) th e o r ie s o f le a r n in g, and (3) t r a in in g program s and le a r n in g theory. That lite ra tu r e indicated th a t references to learning durin g t r a i n i n g g e n e r a lly d e a lt w ith l o g i s t i c s, o r te a c h in g and in s t r u c t i o n a l m ethods ( l e c t u r e, s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n, o r o n -th e - jo b t r a i n i n g ). The in v e s t i g a t o r p o s ite d t h a t t r a i n i n g s p e c i a l i s t s need to be a ttu n e d to tr a i n e e needs and to p ro v id e optimum o p p o r tu n itie s f o r a d d re s s in g th o s e n e e d s. In s te a d o f th e h y p o th e ses o r i g i n a l l y p ro p o sed, a d e c is io n was made to u se a re s e a r c h q u e s tio n, w hich was "To w hat e x te n t a r e know ledge and u se of le a r n in g th e o ry r e f l e c te d in the n ature of train in g programs?" The w rite r proceeded to dev elo p an in te r v ie w q u e s tio n n a ir e and an a n a ly s is c h e c k lis t i n s tr u ment b ase d on p r i n c i p l e s o f a d u lt le a r n in g, o r "an d ra g o g y." D ata w ere g a th e re d from a te le p h o n e su rv e y o f r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f 16 " F o rtu n e 500" com panies lo c a te d th ro u g h o u t th e U n ited S ta t e s. Those rep resen tativ es provided responses to sp ec ifics of how the Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
a fo rem e n tio n ed com ponents a r e f a c i l i t a t e d w ith in c o r p o ra te t r a in in g environm ents The a n a ly s is p ro v id e d c le a r ev id e n ce t h a t in th e 16 com panies i n v e s tig a te d, t r a i n e e p a r ti c ip a t io n v a r ie d from "alm o st none" to "m odest" in th e a sse ssm e n t, p la n n in g, im p le m en tatio n and d e liv e r y, and e v a lu a tio n o f tr a i n i n g p ro g ram s. Of th o se fo u r ele m e n ts o f t r a i n i n g pro g ram s, p la n n in g was th e one i n w hich th e r e was l e a s t train e e p a rtic ip a tio n reported. The study seemed to in d icate th at even the companies th a t rep o rte d g r e a t e s t tr a i n e e p a r tic ip a t io n co u ld h a r d ly be c la s s e d as tr a i n e e o r ie n te d. However, s e v e r a l o f th e com panies, b ase d on th e w r i t e r 's judgm en t, th e in te rv ie w t r a n s c r i p t s, th e p r o f i l e o f th e " ty p ic al" tra in in g program, and in -depth d escriptions of the 16 company t r a i n i n g pro g ram s, co u ld be c la s s e d as d e f in i t e l y o rg a n iz a tio n o r ie n te d. A m ajor o v e r a ll c o n c lu sio n was t h a t a l l o f th e com panies need to be c o g n iz a n t o f, and d e m o n stra te more u se o f, a n d ra g o g ic a l p rin cip les in th e ir train in g programs.
INFORMATION TO USERS This reproduction was made from a copy of a document sent to us for microfilming. While the most advanced technology has been used to photograph and reproduce this document, the quality of the reproduction is heavily dependent upon the quality of the material submitted. The following explanation o f techniques is provided to help clarify markings or notations which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or target for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is Missing Page(s). If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating adjacent pages to assure complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark, it is an indication of either blurred copy because of movement during exposure, duplicate copy, or copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed. For blurred pages, a good image of the page can be found in the adjacent frame. If copyrighted materials were deleted, a target note will appear listing the pages in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., is part of the material being photographed, a definite method of sectioning the material has been followed. It is customary to begin filming at the upper left hand comer of a large sheet and to continue from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. If necessary, sectioning is continued again beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. For illustrations that cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by xerographic means, photographic prints can be purchased at additional cost and inserted into your xerographic copy. These prints are available upon request from the Dissertations Customer Services Department. 5. Some pages in any document may have indistinct print. In all cases the best available copy has been filmed. Universi^ Micrc5nlms International
C o l lin s - B o n d o n, C a ro ly n R u th AN INVESTIGATION O F T H E IM PA C T O F L EA RN IN G T H E O R Y O N TRA ININ G AND CONDITIO NS O F TRA ININ G IN T H E C O R P O R A T E EN VIRO N M EN T W estern M ichigan U niversity E d.d. 15 University Microfilms I nternetione! 300N.zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 Copyright 1983 by Collins-Bondon, Carolyn Ruth All Rights Reserved Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I t i s w ith p le a s u r e t h a t I e x p re s s my a p p r e c ia tio n to some o f th e p e o p le who have a s s i s t e d me i n th e c o m p le tio n o f my s tu d y and a l l other aspects of my doctoral program. To H arold B o le s, my m en to r, a d v is o r, and c h a irp e r s o n, I would l i k e to e x p re ss my a d m ira tio n and a p p r e c ia tio n f o r g u id a n c e, en c o u r agem ent, i n s p ir a t i o n, s u p p o rt, and p a tie n c e. To C h arle s W a rfie ld, R obert B ra s h e a r, and R o b ert B rin k e rh o f f, my com m ittee members, many th an k s f o r t h e i r unending s u p p o rt, 'w ords o f w isd o m,' i n s p ir a t i o n, and u n d e r s ta n d in g. To The Mott Foundation, thanks fo r your generous economic supp o r t w ith o u t i t t h i s e d u c a tio n a l o p p o rtu n ity m ight n o t have been p o s s ib le. To my fam ily and frie n d s, thanks fo r your support, your encouragement, and fo r your endless love. To my d a u g h te r. C e le s te A la in e Bondon, a v e ry s p e c ia l th an k s f o r y o u r lo v e, your c o o p e ra tio n, y o u r u n d e r s ta n d in g, and your patience which gave me constant stren g th. C arolyn C o llin s-b o n d o n
TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS... ü LIST OF TABLES... v i i CHAPTER I. THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND... 1 S ta tem en t o f th e P r o b l e m... 2 R a tio n a le f o r th e S t u d y... 2 P urpose o f Study... 4 L im ita tio n s o f th e S t u d y... 5 S ig n ific a n c e o f th e S tudy... 6 O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e Study... 8 I I. REVIH-7 OF RELATED LITERATURE... 9 The N a tu re and Q u a lity o f T ra in in g Program s.... 10 T h e o rie s o f L e a rn in g... 13 T ra in in g Program s and L ea rn in g T h e o rie s... 17 S um m ary... 22 111. DESIGN AND M ETHOD... 24 P o p u la tio n and Sample... 24 R esearch Q u e stio n... 25 I n s tru m e n ta tio n... 25 The I n i t i a l A pproach... 26 The M o d ified (A c tu a l) A pproach... 29 D ata C o l l e c t i o n... 30 D ata A n a l y s i s... 31 i i i Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Table of Contents Continued CHAPTER Analysis C hecklist Instrum ent.... Summary... IV. RESULTS OF THE STUDY... Range of Use of Andragogy P rin cip les.. P ro file of the " T ypical" T raining Program Needs A ssessm ent... Program P la n n in g... Im p lem en ta tio n and D e liv e ry... E v a lu a tio n... In-D epth D e s c rip tio n s o f Company T ra in in g Program s... Company #1. Company #2, Company #3. Company #4. Company #5. Company #6. Company #7. Company #8. Company #9. Company #10 Company #11 Company #12 Company #13 32 33 36 36 42 42 44 44 44 45 45 46 47 49 51 53 54 55 56 58 59 61 62
Table of Contents Continued CHAPTER Company # 1 4... 63 Company # 1 5... 65 Company # 1 6... 66 Judgm ents R egarding L earn in g Theory E vidence... 67 Judgm ents from In -D ep th D e s c rip tio n s... 67 D epth o f Program O f f e r i n g s... 68 Q u a lity o f P r o g r a m s... 68 S um m ary... 69 V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS... 71 Summary o f th e S t u d y... 71 C o n c lu s io n s... 71 Needs A s s e s s m e n t... 74 Program P l a n n i n g... 74 Im p lem en ta tio n and D e liv e ry... 75 E v a l u a t i o n... 75 Recommendations... 76 S u g g e stio n s f o r F u tu re R esearch... 79 S um m ary... 80 REFERENCES... 81 APPENDICES... 84 A. In te r v ie w Q u e s tio n n a ire... 85 B. L i s t o f C o m p a n ie s... 87 C. A n a ly sis C h e c k lis t In stru m e n t... 89 D. Cover L e tte r and L e a rn in g Theory S c a le... 91
Table of Contents Continued E. Cover L e t t e r and M o d ified Paine-N aum es S c a le... 95 F. In tro d u c to ry L e t t e r... 99 G. V a lid a tio n Q u e s tio n n a ir e... 101 H. Follow-Up L e t t e r... 103 I. E x p ert P a n e l M embers' P r o f i l e s... 105 BIBLIOGRAPHY... 113 Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
LIST OF TABLES 1. Judgm ents R egarding F req u en cy, R e f le c tio n, and Use o f Andragogy P r in c ip le s i n T ra in in g Program E lem ents.... 37 2. P r o f i l e o f th e " T y p ic a l" T ra in in g Program... 43 Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND T ra in in g h a s been a s i g n if i c a n t f a c t o r th ro u g h th e y e a rs in th e a b i l i t y o f p e o p le to m aster a s k i l l and to p a ss i t on from g e n e ra tio n to generation. Training, according to M iller (1979), is an appropriate a c tiv ity when there is an ac tu al d e fic ie n c y in th e jo b p erfo rm an ce o f human b e in g s. T h is can happen when new jo b s a r e b e in g c r e a te d, when o ld jo b s w i l l be perform ed in new w ays, o r when e x is t i n g jo b s a r e being perform ed in d efic ien t ways by members of the present w orkforce, (p. 1) M ille r f u r th e r s t a t e d, " th e b a s ic p u rp o se o f t r a i n i n g i s to shape o r re sh a p e th e b e h a v io r p a tte r n o f an in d iv id u a l" (p. 7 ). Q u ite o f te n th e t r a i n e r 's a b i l i t y to s u c c e s s f u lly change th e b e h a v io r o f th e t r a in e e i s dep en d en t upon o th e r f a c to r s su ch a s m o tiv a tio n, le a r n in g a b ility, in stru c tio n methods, learning environm ent, and the perc e iv e d im p o rtan ce o f th e re a so n s f o r t r a i n i n g. The purpose of train in g is to address needs, to a lle v ia te problems w ith in th e o rg a n iz a tio n, and to upgrade s k i l l s and a b i l i t i e s o f th e t r a i n e e. A ccording to W arren (1 9 6 9 ), " th e r e s p o n s ib i l i ty o f th e t r a i n i n g f u n c tio n goes beyond th e developm ent o f t r a i n i n g program s; i t m ust a c h ie v e th e d e s ire d b e h a v io r change in in d iv id u a ls o r groups... m ust a ls o s e a rc h o u t a l t e r n a t i v e s i n s e l e c t in g th e b e s t c o u rse f o r m eetin g o r g a n iz a tio n g o a ls " (p. 1 1 ). W arren (1969) w ent on to say " th e b e h a v io r change b ro u g h t ab o u t by th e t r a i n i n g fu n c tio n m ust be m easurable in terms of the o rg an izatio n 's requirem ents " (p. 8 ).
The tr a in e d b e h a v io r m ust a ls o be tr a n s f e r a b l e to th e jo b. "The 2 r e s u lt s o f e x p e rim e n ta tio n w ith th e le a r n in g p ro c e ss p ro v id e th e t r a i n i n g f u n c tio n w ith s p e c if i c and e f f e c t iv e to o ls f o r b rin g in g a b o u t b e h a v io r change" (W arren, 1969, p. 1 4 ). An o rg a n iz a tio n o f te n undertakes train in g as the appropriate a c tiv ity for meeting organiz a t io n a l n e e d s, hopin g f o r e f f e c t iv e p r o d u c tiv ity. T ra in e rs and program d e s ig n e rs sh o u ld be a b le to d e te rm in e w h e th e r an o b se rv a b le behavioral change, which train in g is supposed to accom plish, can be: (a) measured and (b) tran sferred to the ac tu al work s itu a tio n. Are a l l tr a in e e s e x p e c te d to l e a m th e same way a t th e same r a te? I s i t p o s s ib le t h a t d e c is io n s ab o u t p la n n in g and e v a lu a tin g t r a i n i n g program s do n o t in c o r p o r a te le a r n in g th e o ry? How w e ll do the tra in in g programs re fle c t what is known about learning theory? T his stu d y was d esig n ed to a d d re ss th e s e q u e s tio n s. Statem ent of the Problem The problem in v estig ated in th is study was: To what extent are know ledge and u se o f le a r n in g th e o ry r e f l e c te d i n th e n a tu r e o f tra in in g programs? R ationale fo r the Study T his and L i p p i tt (1966) s t a t e d, " t r a i n i n g d i r e c t o r s o f te n t a l k ab o u t th e le a r n in g th e o ry t h a t u n d e r lie s t h e i r tr a i n i n g. However, m ost o f us do n o t have a good u n d e rsta n d in g o f le a r n in g th e o r ie s and t h e i r a p p lic a tio n to o u r t r a i n i n g e f f o r t s " (p. 3 ). H ence, th e tra in in g and development s p e c ia lis t is placed in a p o sitio n of Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3 having re sp o n sib ility fo r assessin g o rg anizational needs and designin g t r a i n i n g program s w h ile h a v in g l i t t l e knowledge o f how p e o p le le a m. According to Laird (1978) : T ra in in g and developm ent d e s ig n e r s need some le a r n in g th e o ry upon w hich to b a s e th e a c t i v i t i e s th ey s p e c if y in th e le a r n in g system s th e y c r e a te... s e rv e as change a g e n ts f o r th e c l i e n t o r g a n iz a tio n s and to p roduce ch an g e, th ey need a th e o ry ab o u t le a r n in g. For a f t e r a l l, change begins w ith learn in g th a t there can be a b e t t e r way. (p p. 113-114) The p r e s e n t w r it e r su g g e s ts t h a t p e rs o n n e l in v o lv e d in t r a i n i n g seem to be co n cern ed w ith th e l o g i s t i c s o f t r a i n i n g ( i. e., d e s ir e d o u t com es, le a r n in g s i t e s, le a r n in g m ethods, and le a r n in g gro u p s) more th a n w ith th e a c tu a l p ro c e ss o f l e a r n in g. T ra in in g in many c a ses can be che d if f e r e n c e betw een grow th and p r o d u c tiv ity on one hand o r s ta g n a tio n and lo s s o f p r o d u c tiv ity on th e o th e r. C o n se q u e n tly, in the ro le of tra in in g, program personnel have an o b lig atio n to tra in ee s and to th e c o r p o ra te e s ta b lis h m e n t to u n d e rsta n d how le a r n in g ta k e s p la c e, and " th e te rm in a l o b je c tiv e i s to h e lp a c h ie v e th e g o a ls o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n th ro u g h optimum u se o f manpower" (Jo h n so n, 1976, p. 2-1 ). This and L ip p itt (1966) s ta te d, for example, th at a train in g d i r e c t o r may sa y : "My th e o ry o f le a r n in g i s t h a t em ployees le a r n b e s t when p la c e d i n s m a ll d is c u s s io n groups a t th e t r a in in g s i t e removed from th e p l a n t." What i s n o t c le a r to m ost tr a i n i n g d ir e c to r s i s t h a t th e v a r ia b le s i d e n t i f i e d... r e s u l t i n a m yriad o f d e v ic e s and te c h n iq u e s t h a t stem from, and are most e ffe c tiv e ly u tiliz e d by, a given learn in g th e o ry. In and o f th em selv es th ey a r e n o t le a r n in g th e o r y, (p p. 3-4) The need does e x ist for learning theory c la rific a tio n p rio r to
estab lish in g a tra in in g program. 4 The tra in in g and development spec i a l i s t o f te n i s someone who h as asc en d ed th e company la d d e r a f t e r many years of serv ic e, but who has not had an educational backg ro u n d. Such a p e rso n may n o t u n d e rsta n d th e psy ch o lo g y o f le a r n in g o r how t r a i n i n g can b e s t a d d re s s tr a i n e e n e e d s. B igge and Hunt (1962) d e fin e d " le a r n in g a s th e p ro c e ss by w hich one changes o r dev e lo p s new in s ig h ts o r u n d e r s ta n d in g s" (p. 1 7 5 ). I t seems e s s e n t i a l to t h i s w r ite r t h a t t r a i n i n g program s be d esig n e d to acco m p lish such l e a r n in g. P u rp o se o f Study The p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y was to d e te rm in e to w hat e x te n t know ledge and u se o f le a r n in g a r e r e f l e c te d i n t r a i n i n g p rogram s. A ccording to w r it e r s i n th e f i e l d, th o se program s t h a t r e f l e c t h ig h know ledge and use o f le a r n in g th e o ry a r e more e f f e c t iv e th a n th o s e h av in g l e s s th e o ry b a s i s. I f l a t e r s tu d ie s r e s u l t in fin d in g s th a t t h i s i s s o, th e n p erh ap s a p e r s u a s iv e c a se can be b u i l t f o r h av in g a l l tra in in g programs based on learning theory. A ccording to S to k es (1 9 6 6 ), " th e s u c c e s s f u l i n s tr u c t o r n o t o nly u n d e rsta n d s how p e o p le l e a r n b u t p u ts h i s know ledge to p r a c t i c a l use in s e t t i n g up h is program " (p. 7 9 ). How w e ll do t r a i n i n g program s r e f l e c t le a r n in g th e o ry? Do th e y ta k e in to c o n s id e r a tio n how a d u lts I t i s known t h a t o f te n tr a i n i n g i s used in o rg a n iz a tio n s to c o r r e c t i l l s o r enhance p ro d u c tio n. Economic g a in s o r lo s s e s can depend on the lev e l of proficiency the employee has; th ere fo re.
5 train ees need to be the re cip ien ts of train in g more ta ilo re d to improving th e ir p ro ficiency. Many tim e s th e b a s is f o r d ev e lo p in g t r a i n i n g program s i s to m eet c e r t a i n c o r p o ra te o b je c tiv e s. However, tr a i n i n g p erh ap s could be b e t t e r t a i l o r e d to e x h ib it t r a i n e r aw areness o f how a d u lts le a m and what can be done to f a c ilita te learning to the optimum le v e l. The t r a i n e r, th e t r a i n e e, and th e c o r p o ra tio n m ight a l l e x p e rie n c e s a t i s f a c t i o n i f a l l can re a c h t h e i r g o a ls. L im ita tio n s o f th e Study Four major lim itatio n s were perceived fo r the study being re p o rte d h e r e : 1. No e v a lu a tio n s w ere done on th e e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f tr a i n i n g programs. If the tra in in g programs conducted by the companies in c lu d e d in th e sam ple v a ry w id e ly i n th e e x te n t to w hich th ey r e f l e c t knowledge and u se o f le a r n in g th e o ry, a l o g i c a l n e x t s te p would be to se e i f th o se t h a t w ere h ig h ly r e f l e c t i v e o f le a r n in g th e o ry were indeed b e tte r than those th at did not re fle c t knowledge and use of 2. The o rg a n iz a tio n s in c lu d e d in th e sam ple w ere s e le c te d from among th e "F o rtu n e 500" com panies. S in c e such com panies m ight be presumed to have some o f th e m ost e f f e c t iv e t r a i n i n g program s in th e country, th at selec tio n c rite rio n may have biased the re s u lts. 3. The in s tr u m e n t used was d ev elo p ed f o r t h i s s tu d y, th u s was n o t checked f o r r e l i a b i l i t y. The only m easure p f v a l i d i t y was th e co llec tiv e judgment of the panels of ex perts.
4. T ra in in g s p e c i a l i s t s who w ere w ith o u t e d u c a tio n a l backgrounds co u ld have p o s s ib ly b een ham pered by n o t h a v in g a c l e a r u n d e rsta n d in g o f a d u lt le a r n in g th e o r ie s and th e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e i r a p p lic a tio n. T his c o u ld have caused th e re sp o n se s to be b ase d on inform ation other than th a t re la tin g to learning theory. S ignificance of the Study W ritings in d icatin g the im portance of learning theory to tra in in g do e x i s t. S e v e ra l w ere found a d v o c a tin g th e a c tu a l u se o f l e a r n in g th e o ry in d e s ig n in g t r a i n i n g p ro g ram s. N a d le r (1980) s t a t e d, " th e m anager s h o u ld be a b le to a sk th e HRD (Human R esource D evelopm ent) s t a f f some q u e s tio n s ab o u t le a r n in g th e o r ie s and how th e y a p p ly to th e i n s tr u c t i o n a l s t r a t e g i e s " (p. 9 7 ). N a d le r f u r th e r s t a t e d t h a t th e HRD s t a f f sh o u ld be a b le to answ er th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s : Does the HRD s ta ff: -A ccep t th e c o n c ep t o f andragogy (a d u lt le a rn in g ) as d iffe re n t from pedagogy ( ch ild lea rn in g )? -Follow the b eh av io rist approach to learning? -S u b s c rib e to in d iv id u a l le a r n in g, r a th e r th a n group learn in g, and under what conditions? -U se s e l f - d i r e c t e d le a r n in g, and when? These a r e o n ly a few o f th e q u e s tio n s t h a t a m anager sh o u ld be p re p a re d to a s k. (p. 97) S to k e s (1966) s a id th a t in "jo b and w ork p lace t r a i n i n g " : The job in stru c to r can make p ra c tic a l use of the learn in g p r o c e s s. I t w i l l h e lp him to s e t up a program w hich is sensibly arranged and m eaningful to the lea rn er. This is the prime requirem ent of a successful program.
I f he w i l l u se h is know ledge o f th e le a r n in g p ro c e ss in t h i s way, th e i n s t r u c t o r i s l e s s l i k e l y to be d i s couraged by the fa c t th a t some of h is train e es are comp a r a tiv e ly slow to le a r n o r t h a t th e y seem to s to p m aking p r o g r e s s. He w i l l re c o g n iz e t h a t b o th a re norm al and to be e x p e c te d. He w i l l a ls o have a b e t t e r id e a o f w hat to do to help the lea rn er in e ith e r situ a tio n. The in s tru c to r who re a liz e s th a t learning is a natur a l p ro c e s s w hich ta k e s i n a l l in d iv id u a ls, b u t a t d i f f e r e n t r a t e s, w i l l fin d i t e a s ie r to do an e f f e c t iv e jo b. He w i l l l e a m to m atch h is te a c h in g s k i l l s u c c e s s f u lly a g a in s t th e p a r t i c u l a r le a r n in g p a tte r n s o f h is s tu d e n ts. (p. 82) Both S tokes (1966) and N a d le r (1980) in d ic a te d th e im p o rta n c e o f le a r n in g th e o ry to tra in in g -p r o g ra m p la n n in g and tra in in g -p r o g ra m im p le m e n ta tio n. However, m ost o f th e t r a i n i n g l i t e r a t u r e exam ined r e la t e d to p r a c t i c a l m ethods o f t r a i n i n g. King (1964) s ta te d : "Much old fashioned tra in in g is based on th e adage t h a t p r a c t i c e makes p e r f e c t.... But r e c e n t s c i e n t i f i c e x p lo r a tio n o f th e le a r n in g p ro c e ss h as exploded th e f a ll a c y o f t h i s p r in c ip le " (p. 1 1 3 ). H eyel (1980) s t a t e d th a t "p erh ap s th e f i r s t m ajor ta s k o f th e te a c h in g - le a r n in g tr a n s a c tio n i s to h e lp th e learn er lea m d iffe re n t ways of leam ing" (p. 108). He fu rth e r conclu d e d t h a t h is r e s e a r c h and e x p e rie n c e w ith p ro c e s s e s o f le a r n in g supported the assum ption: T hat th e te a c h in g - le a m in g p ro c e ss i s a human t r a n s a c tio n in v o lv in g th e te a c h e r, l e a r n e r, and le a r n in g group in a s e t o f dynam ic i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s. T eachers and le a r n e r s engage to g e th e r i n a com plex p ro c e ss o f e x p lo r a tio n and d ia g n o s is o f needs f o r and r e s is ta n c e s to le a r n in g and ch an g e, o f e x p e rim e n ta tio n and f a c t - f i n d i n g ; o f t e s t i n g and p la n n in g f o r u t i l i z a t i o n o f le a r n in g and change in th e l i f e o f th e in d iv id u a l, (p. 107) The p r e s e n t in v e s t i g a t o r b e lie v e s as a r e s u l t o f h e r e d u c a tio n and review of the lite ra tu r e, th a t a ll train in g and program
developm ent m ust be a ttu n e d to l e a r n e r g o a ls and o b je c tiv e s as w e ll as to o r g a n iz a tio n a l o b je c tiv e s. F or t r a i n i n g te c h n iq u e s to be b e n e f i c i a l f o r th e t r a i n e e and f o r th e c o r p o r a tio n, t r a i n e r s need to be c o g n iz a n t o f th e many f a c to r s th a t a r e in v o lv e d i n l e a m i n g. One way o f a c h ie v in g t h i s seems to be th ro u g h b a s in g program developm ent on leam in g theory. O rganization of the Study In t h i s c h a p te r, th e s ta te m e n t o f th e p ro b lem, th e r a tio n a le f o r th e s tu d y, th e p u rp o se o f th e s tu d y, i t s l i m i t a t i o n s, and i t s sig n ifican ce were presented. In Chapter I I, the lite ra tu r e regarding: (a ) the purposes and q u ality of tra in in g program s, (b) theor i e s o f a d u lt le a m in g and t r a i n i n g, and (c ) t r a i n i n g program s and le a m in g th e o ry a r e re v ie w ed. In C h ap ter I I I, th e re s e a r c h d e s ig n, in s tr u m e n ta tio n, and methods o f c o l l e c t in g and a n a ly z in g d a ta a r e p r e s e n te d. In C h ap ter IV, f in d in g s a r e e x h ib ite d ; and in C h ap ter V th e stu d y i s sum m arized, c o n c lu sio n s a r e draw n, and recom m endations a r e made. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Before the variab les of the problem were narrowed to the p rese n t d e s c r i p t o r s, th r e e com puter s e a rc h e s w ere co n d u c ted, two o f them th ro u g h th e W estern M ichigan U n iv e r s ity E d u c a tio n a l R esource C e n te r. In th e f i r s t, th e d e s c r ip to r s o f " s t a f f d ev e lo p m e n t," " p r o f e s s io n a l tra in in g, " " tra in e rs, " and "achievem ent and success" were used. T his s e a rc h r e s u lte d in a l i s t i n g o f 40 t i t l e s, o f w hich 25 w ere u s a b le. The second s e a rc h r e s u lt e d in 37 t i t l e s, o f which 19 w ere u s a b le, w ith th e fo llo w in g d e s c r ip to r s h a v in g been used f o r th e s e a rc h : " le a d e r s h ip t r a i n i n g, " "management d ev e lo p m e n t," " p r o f e s s io n a l developm ent t r a i n i n g, " and "p erfo rm an c e f a c to r s and s u c c e s s." The t h i r d s e a rc h to o k p la c e th ro u g h u se o f th e B u sin e ss L ib ra ry f a c i l i t i e s, and th e d e s c r ip to r s used w ere: " t r a i n i n g," " t r a i n i n g needs," "program developm ent," " pro fessio n al development and le a m i n g," " le a m in g th e o r y," and " t r a i n e e n e e d s." T his se a rc h r e s u lte d in a lis tin g of 137 t i tl e s, of which 68 were usable. The problem as p resently sta te d in d icated a clear need fo r re view of lite ra tu r e in three areas, namely : (1) the nature and quali t y o f t r a i n i n g p ro g ram s, (2) th e o ry o f le a m in g (w ith p a r ti c u la r emphasis on ad u lt lea m in g ), and (3) the re la tio n sh ip, i f any, betw een n a tu r e and q u a lity o f t r a i n i n g program s and t h e i r b a se s in th e o ry o f a d u lt l e a m in g.
The N a tu re and Q u a lity o f T ra in in g Program s King (1964) sta te d : Most s u p e r v is o r t r a i n i n g i s p ackag e d. T h is means t h a t th e tr a i n i n g program i s s ta n d a r d iz e d. I t is n o t t a i l o r e d to th e re q u ire m e n ts o f s u p e r v is o r s and management.... T here i s l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t many a d m in is tr a to r s o f packaged tr a i n i n g a r e aw are o f i t s w eak n esse s, and t h a t th e y th em selv es f e e l f r u s t r a t e d a s a r e s u l t. They know th a t th e ir programmes are based larg ely on general p rin c ip le s and te c h n iq u e s. They do w hat th e y can to im prove th e ir train in g methods which are o ften highly so p h is tic a te d. But th e y a r e w o rrie d a b o u t th e d i f f i c u l t i e s w hich supervisors meet in applying these p rin cip les and techniques to th e ir own shopfloor and organizational s itu a tio n s. They a r e a ls o fa c e d w ith th e problem o f a s s e s s in g th e e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f many a s p e c ts o f s u p e r v is o r t r a i n i n g. (p p. 93-94) T h is q u o ta tio n im p lie s, a t l e a s t to t h i s w r it e r, th a t th e a v e rag e t r a i n i n g program i s n o t co n c ern e d w ith in d iv id u a l i n t e r e s t, b u t i s p re s e n te d f o r o r g a n iz a tio n a l re a s o n s. F is h e r (1 9 7 9 ), as w e ll as Wexley and Latham (1981), supports King as indicated by the follow ing q u o tatio n s. Wexley and Latham pointed out how companies purchase packaged "programs" on the recommendation of other ind iv id uals in d iffe re n t org an izatio n s, and s ta te d : "O rganizations seldom r ig o r o u s ly e v a lu a te th e e f f e c t s o f th e program s th e y p u rc h a s e. They sim p ly go by how much th e p a r ti c ip a n t s lik e d th e s e s s io n, and how much th e y ' f e e l ' i t w i l l b e n e f i t them " (p. 7 ). F is h e r q u o ted D r. S te rn, c o n s u lta n t f o r Focus Company, as s a y in g " i t i s r a r e to f in d a p re -p ack ag e d program w hich f i t s a l l o f y our re q u ire m e n ts and i s s p e c if i c a l l y aim ed a t th e t a r g e t au d ie n c e in y o u r o rg a n iz a tio n " (p. 3 4 ). Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
T ra in in g p e rs o n n e l have an o b lig a tio n to th e t r a i n e e, and th e 11 o r g a n iz a tio n, to d e s ig n t r a i n i n g program s t h a t w i l l a d d re s s needs and also be relevant to a l l involved. Nadler (1980) pointed out I t i s th e r e s p o n s ib i l i ty o f th e HRD u n it to f in e - tu n e th e o b je c tiv e s r e l a t i v e to th e p a r t i c u l a r l e a r n e r s who a r e in the train in g program at the tim e. I t is the resp o n sib ili t y o f th e m anager to p e r io d ic a lly rev iew th e o b je c tiv e s to d ete rm in e i f th ey a r e s t i l l re le v a n t to th e p o lic y, p r a c tic e s and p ro c e d u re s in th e u n i t. (p. 131) Stockard (1977) outlined the follow ing suggestions fo r educat i o n a l s p e c i a l i s t s, t r a i n i n g s p e c i a l i s t s, and program d e v e lo p e rs : I t is now generally agreed th a t people le a m A t d i f f e r e n t r a t e s. Through d iffe re n t m edia. Under d i f f e r e n t p h y s ic a l c o n d itio n s. Under d i f f e r e n t d e g re e s o f g u id a n c e. From each o th er, ( p. 15) Stockard (1977) fu rth e r sta te d : T r a d itio n a l i n s tr u c t i o n f e a tu r e s l e c tu r e s and l e c t u r e - d is c u s s io n s. Modem i n s tr u c t i o n i s h ig h ly i n t e r a c t i v e, p a r t i c i p a t i v e, and e x p e r i e n t i a l. I t i s a le a m in g - b y - doing-under -trained-guidance system. Leam ing a t d iff e r e n t r a te s s u g g e s ts m u ltip h a se d te a c h in g. L e a rn in g through d iffe re n t media points to m ultim edia teaching. L e a m in g u n d er d i f f e r e n t p h y s ic a l c o n d itio n s can be t r a n s l a te d i n to a p la n f o r s ta g in g p a r t o f th e te a c h in g a s OUT (On Job T r a in in g ), some in th e c la ssro o m, some in a la b o r a to r y o r w orkshop, and even p a r t o f i t as l i v e - i n experiences in the liv in g q uarters and a t the diningroom t a b l e. L e a m in g u n d er d i f f e r e n t d e g re e s o f g u id an c e means p ro v id in g th e s e t t i n g f o r le a m in g i n la r g e g ro u p s, t u t o r i a l l y, and from th e s u p e r v is o r d u rin g th e OJT p h a se. L e a m in g from each o th e r d i c t a t e s th e u se o f such modem e x p e rien tial methods as role playing, videota p in g, a n a ly s is o f c r i t i c a l i n c id e n ts, and th e l i k e. (p. 15) Stockard (1977) then made reference to the stan d ard izatio n of tra in - Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Large p riv ate e n te rp rise s, or public serv ice organizatio n s such as th e f e d e r a l governm ent, s t r i v e c o n s ta n tly f o r a program o f s ta n d a r d iz a tio n and in te r c h a n g e a b i lity... The pro cu rem en t sy stem seldom i f e v e r a sk s th e tra in in g and development s p e c ia lis t what he or she needs. I t c o n tin u e s to g rin d o u t p ro d u c ts o r d e sig n s and u n it c o s t gauged o n ly by w hat th e t r a f f i c w i l l b e a r. T h is r e s u l t s in e x c e s s iv e and in e q u ita b le e x p e n d itu r e o f v i t a l r e s o u rc e s, (p. 56) S c h if f (1979) e x p la in e d, "when a company h as a t r a i n i n g d e p a r t m ent, i t ' s p r im a r ily co n cern ed w ith th e a c t i v i t i e s o f te a c h in g ra th e r than w ith learning" (p. 61). S a in t (1974) s a i d, "Many t r a i n i n g e f f o r t s a r e n o t much more th a n th e o f f e r in g o f c o u r s e s. They a r e o f te n d is c o n n e c te d e f f o r t s, s e p a r a te from th e work s i t u a t i o n, and f a i l to c a rry o v er in to th e p ro d u c tiv e p ro c e s s e s o f w ork" (p. 1 6 2 ). S a i n t 's w r itin g su g g e ste d t h a t m anagers o r t r a i n i n g s p e c i a l i s t s p r e f e r to spend tim e and e f f o r t w here i t w i l l be more re c o g n iz e d. T h is i n f e r s t h a t t r a i n i n g does n o t b r in g ab o u t th e "more v i s i b l e re w ard s" t h a t o th e r c o r p o ra te fe ats might bring about. She fu rth e r sta te d : Managers o f te n sen d s u b o rd in a te s to t r a i n i n g c o u rses w hich th e y th em selv es do n o t u n d e rsta n d th e need f o r, n o r do th e y w ant t h e i r s u b o rd in a te s to u t i l i z e th e new er c o n c e p ts.... U n d e rly in g th e p r e c a r io u s n e s s o f t r a i n ing is a lack of understanding of the function of lea rn ing w ithin an org an izatio n, (p. 163) T ra in in g and t r a i n i n g program developm ent w ith in th e c o r p o ra te environm ent many tim e s a r e p re p ack a g ed and s ta n d a r d iz e d. However, th a t i t would b en e fit the corporation to diagnose tra in in g and organ i z a tio n a l needs and p la n a c c o rd in g ly seems a p p a re n t. W hile th e t r a i n i n g program i s b e in g d e s ig n e d, know ledge re g a rd in g le a r n in g th eo ries and how ad u lts le a m should be incorporated so as to best
serve the purposes of the indiv id u al tra in e e s. T h eo ries o f L earn in g A v ery g e n e ra l and o u td a te d s ta te m e n t t h a t in d ic a te d th e b ro ad sco p e and la c k o f s p e c i f i c i t y o f le a r n in g th e o ry was "T here a r e sev eral th eo ries of learning supported by various experim ental evidence" (H ilg a r d, 1948, p. 7 5 ). More r e c e n t l y, R ogers (1969) p o in te d o u t t h a t : 1. Human b e in g s have a n a t u r a l p o t e n t i a l f o r le a r n in g ; 2. s i g n if i c a n t le a r n in g o c c u rs when th e s u b je c t m a tte r i s r e le v a n t to th e s t u d e n t 's p u rp o se s; 3. learn in g which involves a change in s e lforganization is threatening and tends to be re siste d ; 4. se lf - th re a te n in g learnings are most e a sily perc e iv e d and a s s im ila te d when e x te r n a l c o n tr o ls a re a t a minimum; 5. much s i g n i f i c a n t le a r n in g i s a c q u ire d th ro u g h 6. learning is fa c ilita te d when the student partic ip a te s responsibly in the learn in g process; 7. s e l f - i n i t i a t e d le a r n in g w hich in v o lv e s f e e lin g s as w e ll as i n t e l l e c t i s more l a s t i n g th a n o th e r k in d s o f le a r n in g ; 8. in d ep e n d en ce, c r e a t i v i t y, and s e l f - r e l i a n c e a r e f a c i l i t a t e d when s e l f - c r i t i c i s m and s e l f - e v a l u a ti o n a re b asic and evaluation by others is secondary ; and 9. th e m ost s o c i a l l y u s e f u l le a r n in g c o n s is ts i n learning the process of lea rn in g, developing a continuin g open n ess to e x p e rie n c e, and in c o r p o r a tin g in to ones e l f th e p ro c e ss o f ch an g e, (p p. 157-163) Several of these fa cets of learning were supported by Foy (1977), who stated :
M ature p e o p le le a m b e s t when th e y a r e d i r e c t ly in v o lv e d in re a l problems to which answers are not known. O ne's own e x p e rie n c e, to g e th e r w ith th a t o f o th e r s, can be examined to help find so lu tio n s to m ajor problem s. L earn in g by d oing i s p a r ti c u la r l y e f f e c t iv e when a problem i s ta c k le d in an u n fa m ilia r s i t u a t i o n, (p p. 158-159) This and L ip p itt (1966) described these types of learning th eo rie s : B eh av io rist. These th eo ries hold th at learning res u lts from the rewards or punishment th a t follow s a resp o n se to a s tim u lu s. These a r e th e s o - c a lle d S-R T h e o r ie s. G e s ta lt. These t h e o r i s t s b e lie v e le a r n in g i s n o t a sim p le m a tte r o f stim u lu s and re s p o n s e. They h o ld th a t learning is cognitive and involves the whole p erso n ality. F re u d ia n. D evelopm ent and th e k in d o f r e - e d u c a tio n t h a t goes on in p sy c h o th e ra p y. F u n c t i o n a l i s t. These seem to ta k e p a r ts o f th e th e o r ie s and view le a r n in g as a v e ry complex phenomenon th a t is not explained by e ith e r the G estalt or the Behavi o r a l T h e o r ie s. M athem atical. To these research ers, learning theorie s must be sta te d in m athem atical form. C u rre n t L earn in g T heory. These seem to ru n th e ra n g e o f m o difying B e h a v io ra l T h e o r ie s, accom m odating two pieces of both th eo rie s, assuming th at tra in in g involves the whole man psychological, ph y sio lo g ical,b io lo g i c a l, and n e u r o p h y s ic a l, (p p. 5-8 ) th e o r ie s : L a ird (1978) p ro v id e d th e s e f u r th e r s ta te m e n ts a b o u t le a r n in g Sensory stim u latio n : The in s tru c to r presents the m o tiv a tio n. The th e o ry i s th a t th e more e f f e c t iv e (o r s e n so ry ) th e s tim u lu s, th e more in te n s e th e m o tiv a tio n - re s p o n s e. R einforcem ent th e o r y : The i n s tr u c t o r p r e s e n ts th e o r i g i n a l s tim u lu s. A f te r t h a t, th e r e i s m utual exchange of adapted stim u li. Hopefully th is exchange is punctuated by p o sitiv e reinforcem ent in which the lea rn er and
th e i n s t r u c t o r s h a re th e d e s ir e to o f f e r happy co n sequences fo r m utually b e n e fic ia l behaviors. Andragogy and f a c i l i t a t i o n. In a two-way c lim a te, th e g o a ls a r e d ete rm in e d o r exam ined. F e e lin g s as w e ll as cognitive values of the lea rn ers become actu al mater i a l s o f th e le a r n in g. Removal o f e x te r n a l t h r e a t s and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f re s o u rc e s f o r e n a b lin g change become prime s k ills of the in s tru c to r, (p. 126) Mezirow (1981) exam ined a c r i t i c a l th e o ry o f a d u lt le a r n in g and e d u c a tio n and he th e n o u tlin e d th r e e p rim ary c o g n itiv e i n t e r e s t s th e t e c h n ic a l, th e p r a c t i c a l, and th e e m a n c ip a to ry. He f u r th e r sta te d "each learning domain suggests... a d iffe re n t mode of p ersonal learning and d iffe re n t learning needs. These imply three d iff e r e n t f u n c tio n s f o r a d u lt e d u c a tio n co n c ern e d w ith f a c i l i t a t i n g su ch le a r n in g " (p. 4 ). He c o n tin u e d, "each o f th e th r e e d i s t i n c t but in te rre la te d domains c o n tro llin g and m anipulating the environm ent; s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n and p e r s p e c tiv e tra n s f o rm a tio n in v o lv e s d iffe re n t ways of knowing and hence d iffe re n t learning needs, d ifferen t educational s tra te g ie s and methods" ( p. 21). L aird (1978) provided these statem ents, also about learning designs fo r adults : A ndragogic le a r n in g d e sig n s in v o lv e a number o f f e a tu r e s which recognize the e sse n tia l m aturity of the lea rn er : They a r e p ro b le m -c e n te re d r a th e r th a n c o n te n t- centered. They p e rm it and en co u rag e th e a c t iv e p a r ti c ip a t io n of the lea rn er. They encourage the lea rn er to introduce past experiences in to the processes in order to reexamine th a t experience in the lig h t of new data... new problem s. The c lim a te o f th e le a r n in g m ust be c o lla b o r a tiv e ( i n s t r u c t o r - t c - l e a m e r and l e a r n e r - t o - i n s t r u c t o r ) as
opposed to a u th o r ity o r ie n te d. E v a lu a tio n i s a m u tu al a c t i v i t y betw een le a r n e r and in s t r u c t o r. Evaluation leads to re ap p ra isa l of needs and in te r e s t s and th e r e f o r e to re d e s ig n and brand-new le a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s. A c ti v i t i e s a r e e x p e r i e n t i a l, n o t " tr a n s m i t ta l and a b s o r p tio n " as i n s ta n d a r d pedagogy, (p. 123) M ichalak and Yager (1979) suggested th a t not only must the student and i n s t r u c t o r assum e r e s p o n s ib i l i ty f o r w h a t, when, how, and to whom inform ation is taught, but also andragogically as opposed to pedagogically th a t : The s tu d e n t a c c e p ts th e c o n te n t b ase d on e v id e n c e, n o t b lin d f a i t h. The student is ac tiv e ra th e r than passive. The s tu d e n t h as e x p e rie n c e i n th e s u b je c t and b rin g s th a t experience into the classroom. The student has in d iv id u al needs th a t must be add r e s s e d. The student evaluated him self or h e rs e lf. Immediate ap p licatio n of the concepts is common. D is c u s s io n and e x p e rim e n ta tio n a r e commonly used te a c h in g m ethods. They f u r th e r s t a t e d : A tten d a n ce i s o p tio n a l, (p. 74) I f th e a d u lt s tu d e n t s e e s t h a t e f f o r t expended i n th e c la ssro o m w i l l le a d to l e a r n in g, le a r n in g w i l l le a d to an ap p lica tio n of the concepts to the jo b, the applicat i o n w i l l le a d to s u c c e s s, and t h a t re c o g n itio n o f th a t su c c e ss and su b seq u e n t rew ard w i l l fo llo w, th e n, we w i l l have a m otivated stu d en t, (p. 75) L ip p itt, T his, and Bidw ell (1971) quoted Knowles as saying: Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The new in sig h ts in to the n ature of the in te rn a l lea rn in g p ro c e ss hav e le d to a s h i f t i n th e d e f in i t i o n o f th e r o l e o f th e te a c h e r from th e t r a d i t i o n a l one o f th e t r a n s m i t t e r o f s u b je c t m a tte r to one o f p ro c e d u ra l and re s o u rc e p e rso n i n th e p ro c e s s o f in q u ir y. The a r t o f teaching accordingly has s h ifte d in emphasis from le c tu r in g, le s s o n p la n n in g, and t e s t i n g tow ard in v o lv in g th e learn ers in diagnosing, planning, conducting, and evalua tin g t h e i r own le a r n in g, (p. 72) The re v ie w o f le a r n in g t h e o r ie s as th ey ap p ly to a d u lts seemed to s u g g e s t to th e in v e s t i g a t o r t h a t a b a s ic p re m ise co u ld b e s t a t e d, namely: ad u lts lea rn d iffe re n tly than do ch ild ren. Adults bring a w e a lth o f e x p e rie n c e w ith them to each le a r n in g s i t u a t i o n. A d u lts w i l l fu n c tio n b e t t e r, become m ore m o tiv a te d, and le a r n more r e a d ily i f they are allowed to p a rtic ip a te in the planning, in the im plem enting, and the evaluating of a tra in in g sessio n. T raining Programs and Learning Theories McGehee and Thayer (1961) s ta te d : "An understanding of learning th e o ry and p r in c ip le s i s e s s e n t i a l to th e c r i t i c a l e v a lu a tio n o f techniques used in modem in d u s tria l train in g " (p. 129). They fu r th e r s u g g e s te d th a t th e " t r a i n i n g s p e c i a l i s t f a m i l i a r iz e h im s e lf w ith th e s e th e o r ie s... as a so u rc e o f sound i d e a ls co n c e rn in g p la n n in g and d i r e c t in g i n d u s t r i a l tr a i n i n g " (p. 1 2 9 ). T h is a d v ic e m ig h t b e a p p lie d to p r o f e s s io n a l and te c h n ic a l tr a i n i n g as w e ll as to i n d u s t r i a l t r a i n i n g, b e c a u se t r a i n i n g ta k e s p la c e in num erous segments of our so ciety. H eyel (1980) was o f th e o p in io n t h a t : W ith to d a y 's em phasis on em ployee and e x e c u tiv e -d e v e lo p - ment p rogram s, w hich f o r m ost p a r tic ip a n t s o f te n c a l l f o r changes o f in g ra in e d h a b i t s o f th o u g h t, i t i s im p o rta n t
t h a t management be aw are o f th e com plex m o tiv a tio n a l, p e r c e p tu a l, and em o tio n a l fo r c e s p re s e n t in th e le a r n in g p r o c e s s. A lso im p o rta n t i s an aw areness o f th e c o n d i tio n s w hich m ust be p re s e n t b e fo re th e in d iv id u a l can le a r n and ch an g e, (p. 107) McGehee and T hayer (1961) em phasized th o s e a s p e c ts o f le a r n in g th e o ry and p r i n c i p l e s t h a t seem p a r ti c u la r l y p e r ti n e n t to i n d u s tr i a l t r a i n i n g, in c lu d in g : 1. The n a tu r e o f th e le a r n in g p ro c e ss 2. M o tiv a tio n and le a rn in g 3. Factors affec tin g learning efficien cy a. b. c. P ractice and conditions of p ra ctice Individual d ifferences N ature of m a te ria l to be learn ed 4. T ransfer of train in g and m aintenance of beh a v io r. (p. 130) Nadler (1980) sta te d : "The focus of train in g is on the job the emp lo y e e h as now. Such le a r n in g e x p e rie n c e s a r e concerned w ith a c tu a l jo b perfo rm an c e" (p. 2 3 ). Thus i t seem ed, a c c o rd in g to t h a t w r ite r, t h a t th e t r a i n e r 's c o n c ern should be w ith le a r n in g th e o ry f o r a d u lts ; w ith andragogy. Knowles (1980) fu rth e r stated : The im p o rta n t im p lic a tio n f o r a d u lt- e d u c a tio n p r a c tic e o f th e f a c t t h a t le a r n in g i s an i n t e r n a l p ro c e ss i s t h a t those methods and techniques which involve the in d iv id u a l m ost d ee p ly in s e l f - d ir e c te d in q u iry w i l l p roduce th e g r e a t e s t le a r n in g. T his p r in c ip le o f e g o -in v o lv e m e n t l i e s a t th e h e a r t o f th e a d u lt e d u c a to r 's a r t. In f a c t th e m ain t h r u s t o f m odem a d u lt- e d u c a tio n tech n o lo g y i s in th e d i r e c t io n o f in v e n tin g te c h n iq u e s f o r in v o lv in g a d u lts in e v e r-d e e p e r p ro c e s s e s o f s e lf - d ia g n o s is o f t h e i r own needs f o r c o n tin u e d le a r n in g, in fo rm u la tin g th e ir own objectives fo r learning, in sharing responsib ility for designing and carrying out th e ir learning
a c t i v i t i e s, and in e v a lu a tin g t h e i r p ro g re s s tow ard t h e i r o b j e c ti v e s, (p. 56) Knowles also posited the follow ing four assum ptions regarding adult le a r n e r s : As in d ividuals m ature : 1. T h e ir s e l f concept moves from one o f b e in g a dependent p erso n ality toward being a se lf - d ire c te d human 2. They accum ulate a growing re serv o ir of experience t h a t becomes an in c r e a s in g ly r i c h re s o u rc e f o r l e a r n i n g. 3- T heir readiness to learn becomes o riented increasingly to the developmental tasks of th e ir so cial 4. T h e ir tim e p e r s p e c tiv e changes from one o f postponed ap p lica tio n of knowledge to immediacy of ap p lic a tio n, and a c c o rd in g ly, t h e i r o r i e n t a ti o n tow ard one o f p e rfo rm a n c e - c e n te re d n e ss. (pp. 44-45) D avies (1981) su p p o rte d Knowles in h is s ta te m e n ts by o u tlin in g th e fo llo w in g a p p ro a c h, w hich d e se rv e s more a t t e n t i o n from e d u c a to rs and t r a i n e r s. A d iffe re n t approach is one th a t s ta rts w ith the perceptio n s, the liv ed experience, the being of the lea rn er. L e a rn in g need s to develop o u t o f th e c u r r e n t e x p e rie n c e o f th e l e a r n e r and b u ild from i t.... The liv e d e x p e rie n c e approach does n o t d i s c r e d i t th e u s e f u ln e s s o f o th e r a p p ro a c h e s, b u t in d ic a te s th a t th e s tu d y o f le a r n in g should be b ase d on th e e x p e r i en c es th e e m o tio n s, f e e lin g s, th o u g h ts and body s t a t e o f th e le a r n e r, (p. 228) T hus, a c c o rd in g to Knowles (1 9 8 0 ), D avies (1 9 8 1 ), and o th e r s, i t i s re a s o n a b le to e x p e c t th a t t r a i n i n g a d d re s s th e needs o f th e in d iv id u a l a s w e ll a s th e needs o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n. N a d le r (1982) suggested the im portance of iden tify in g learning needs, and he