Devices. chapter Introduction. 1.2 Silicon Conductivity

chapter 1 Devices 1.1 Introduction The properties and performance of analog bicmos integrated circuits are dependent on the devices used to construct them. This chapter is a review of the operation of silicon devices. It begins with a discussion of conductivity and resistance. Simple physical models for bipolar transistors, MOS transistors, and junction and diffusion capacitance are developed. 1.2 Silicon Conductivity The conductivity of silicon can be controlled and made to vary over several orders of magnitude by adding small amounts of impurities. Silicon belongs to group four in the periodic table of elements. It has four valence electrons in its outer shell. A silicon atom in a silicon crystal has four nearest neighbors. Silicon forms covalent bonds where each atom shares its valence electrons with its four nearest neighbors. Each atom has its four original valence electrons plus the four belonging to its neighbors. That gives it eight valence electrons. The eight valence electrons complete the shell producing a stable state for the silicon atom. Electrical conductivity requires current consisting of moving electrons. The valence electrons are attached to an atom and are not free to move far from it. Some valence electrons will receive enough thermal energy to free themselves from the silicon atom. These electrons move to energy levels in a band of energy called the conduction band. Conduction band electrons are not attached to a particular atom and are free to move about the crystal. When an electron leaves a silicon atom, the atom becomes a positively charged silicon ion. The situation is represented schematically in Figure 1.1. The vacant valence state, previously occupied by the electron, is called a hole. Each hole has a positive charge equal to one

electronic charge associated with it. With one electron gone, there are seven valence electrons, shared with nearby neighbor atoms, and one hole associated with the ionized silicon atom. Holes can move. If the hole represents a missing electron that was shared with the silicon neighbor on the left, only a small amount of energy is required for one of the other seven valence electrons to move into the hole. If an electron shared with an atom on the right moves into the hole on the left, the hole will have moved from the left of the atom to the right. The movement of holes in silicon is really the movement of electrons leaving and filling electron states. It is like the motion of a bubble in a fluid. The bubble is the absence of the fluid. The bubble appears to move up, but actually the fluid is moving down. Each hole in silicon is a mobile positive charge equal to one electronic charge. Figure 1.1 A schematic representation of a silicon crystal is shown. Each silicon atom shares its four valence electrons with its nearest neighbors. A positively charged hole exists where an electron has been lost due to ionization. The hole acts as a mobile positive particle with a charge equal to one electronic charge. The conductivity of silicon increases when there are more charge carriers (electrons and holes) present. In pure silicon there will be a small number of thermally generated electron hole pairs. The number of electrons equals the number of holes because each electron leaving a silicon atom for the conduction band leaves behind a hole in the valence band. When the number of holes equals the number of conduction electrons, this is called intrinsic silicon. The intrinsic carrier concentration is strongly temperature dependent. At room temperature, the intrinsic carrier concentration n i =1.5x10 10 electron-hole pairs/cm 3. Small amounts of impurity elements from group 3 or group 5 in the periodic table are used to control the electron and hole concentrations. A group five element such as phosphorus, when added to the silicon crystal replaces a silicon atom. Phosphorus has five valence electrons in its outer shell, one more than silicon. Four of phosphorus valence

electrons form covalent bonds with its four silicon neighbors. The remaining phosphorus electron is loosely associated with the phosphorus atom. Only a small amount of energy is required to ionize the phosphorus atom by moving the extra electron to the conduction band leaving behind a positively ionized phosphorus atom. Since an electron is added to the conduction band, the added group five impurity is called a donor. This represents n-type silicon with mobile electrons and fixed positively ionized donor atoms. N-type silicon is typically doped with 10 15 or more donors per cubic centimeter. This swamps out the thermally generated electrons at normal operating temperatures. A group three element, like boron, is called an acceptor. Doping with acceptors results in p-type silicon. When an acceptor element with three valence electrons in its outer shell replaces a silicon atom, it becomes a negative ion, acquiring an electron from the silicon. That allows it to complete its outer shell and to form covalent bonds with neighboring silicon atoms. The electron acquired from the silicon leaves a hole behind. At room temperature all acceptors are ionized and the number of holes per cubic centimeter is equal to the number of acceptor atoms. In an n-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority carriers and holes are referred to as minority carriers. Similarly, in p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers and electrons are referred to as minority carriers. In practical devices, doping levels greatly exceed the thermally generated levels of electron hole pairs (by 5 orders of magnitude or more). When silicon is doped, say, with donors to produce n-type silicon, the number of holes is reduced. The large number of electrons increases the probability of a hole recombining with an electron. An equilibrium develops where the increase of holes due to thermal generation equals the decrease of holes due to recombination. The recombination rate and the number of holes varies inversely with the number of electrons. This is called the law of mass action. It holds for all doping levels in both p-type and n-type semiconductors in equilibrium. It is a very useful relationship that allows the number of minority carriers to be calculated when the doping level for the majority carriers is known. The law of mass action is pn = n 2 i (1.1) where p is the number of holes per cubic cm and n is the number of conduction electrons per cubic cm. Example A silicon sample is doped with N D =5x10 17 donors/cm 3. What are the majority and minority carrier concentrations?

The sample is n-type where electrons are the majority carriers. Assuming all donors are ionized, the electron density is equal to the donor concentration, n =5x10 17 cm 3. The minority (hole) concentration is p = n2 i = (1.5x1010 ) 2 N D 5x10 17 = 450cm 3 There are very few holes compared to electrons in this n-type sample. 1.2.1 Drift Current Voltage across a silicon sample results in an electric field that exerts a force on free electrons and holes causing them to move resulting in current flow. Consider an electron. The force produced by the electric field causes it to accelerate. Its velocity increases with time until it strikes the silicon crystal lattice or an impurity, where it is scattered and loses its momentum. The electron is constantly accelerating then bumping into the silicon losing its momentum. This process results in an average velocity proportional to the electric field called the drift velocity. v drift = µ n E (1.2) where µ n and E are the electron mobility and the electric field. Mobility decreases when there is more scattering of carriers. Lattice scattering increases with temperature. Therefore, mobility and conductivity tend to decrease with temperature. Carriers are also scattered from impurities. Mobility decreases significantly with doping as shown in Figure 1.2.[2]. Conductivity is proportional to mobility and carrier concentration. For an n-type sample, the current flowing through the cross-sectional area A is I = AqµnE = AσE (1.3) where q is the electronic charge, n is the number of free electrons per cubic centimeter, and σ = qµ n n is the conductivity. Since the sample is doped with N D donors per cubic centimeter, n = N D and the conductivity is σ = qµ n N D (1.4) similarly the conductivity of p-type silicon, doped with acceptor atoms, where the current carriers are holes is σ = qµ p N A, where N A is the number of acceptor atoms per cubic centimeter. 1.2.2 Energy Bands The energy states that can be occupied by electrons are limited to bands of energy in silicon as shown in Figure 1.3. The valence band is normally

Figure 1.2 Carrier mobility in silicon at 300 K decreases significantly with impurity concentration.[1] (Reprinted from Solid-State Electronics, Volume II, S. M. Sze and J. C. Irvin, Resistivity, Mobility and Impurity Levels in GaAs, Ge, and Si at 300 K., pages 599-602, Copyright 1968, with permission from Elsevier Science.) Figure 1.3 Electron energies in silicon are shown. Electrons free to move about the crystal occupy states in the conduction band. Valence electrons attached to silicon atoms occupy the valence band. The intrinsic level is approximately half way between the conduction and valence bands. The Fermi level shown corresponds to n-type silicon.

occupied by valence electrons attached to silicon atoms. The conduction band is occupied by conduction electrons that are free to move about the crystal. If all electrons are in their lowest energy states, they are occupying states in the valence band. The difference between the conduction band edge and the valence band edge is E G =1.12 ev, the band gap. When a silicon atom loses an electron, it takes 1.12 electron volts of energy for the electron to move from the valence to the conduction band. When this happens the conduction band is occupied by an electron and the valence band is occupied by a hole. Impurities introduce electron states inside the band gap close to the valence or conduction band. Donor states are close to the conduction band. It takes very little energy for an electron to move from a donor state to the conduction band. Acceptor states are located close to the valence band. A valence electron can easily move from the valence band to an acceptor state. The Fermi level is a measure of the probability that a state is occupied by an electron. States below the Fermi level tend to be occupied, while states above it tend to be unoccupied. As the temperature increases, some states below the Fermi level will become unoccupied as electrons move up to levels above the Fermi level. States at the Fermi level have a 50-50 chance of being occupied. In intrinsic silicon where the number of holes equals the number of electrons, the Fermi level is approximately half way between the valence and conduction bands. This Fermi level is called the intrinsic level, E i. In an n-type semiconductor, with conduction band states occupied, the Fermi level moves up closer to the conduction band as the probability that a conduction band state is occupied increases. In p-type semiconductors, with vacant valance band states (holes), the Fermi level moves down closer to the valence band. The position of the Fermi level relative to the intrinsic level is a measure of the carrier concentration. For n-type silicon, the Fermi level, E f is above E i. For p-type it is below E i. The number of electrons per cubic cm in the conduction band is related to the position of the Fermi level by the following equation[3, page 22]. n = n i e E f E i KT (1.5) where n i is the intrinsic carrier concentration and K =8.62x10 5 electron volts per degrees Kelvin is Boltzmann s constant. If T = 300, KT =0.0259 V. 300 degrees Kelvin is 27 degrees C and 80.6 F, commonly called room temperature. Since by the law of mass action pn = n 2 i p = n i e E i E f KT (1.6)

Example If a silicon sample is doped with 10 17 acceptors per cm 3, calculate the position of the Fermi level relative to the intrinsic level at room temperature. At normal operating temperatures, all acceptors will be ionized and the hole concentration p will equal the acceptor concentration. From Equation 1.6: E i F f = KT ln p = N A =10 17 holes per cm 3 ( NA n i ) ( ) 10 17 =0.0259 ln 1.5x10 10 =0.41 V The Fermi level is 0.41 V below the intrinsic level. 1.2.3 Sheet Resistance Sheet resistance is an easily measured quantity used to characterize the doping of silicon. Consider the sample shown in Figure 1.4. The silicon is doped with donors to form a resistor of n-type silicon. The resistor length is L and its cross-sectional area is tw, where t is the effective depth of the resistor. The resistance is R = L σtw = L W R sh (1.7) Figure 1.4 region. Resistors are formed in silicon by placing dopants in a specific The parameter R sh is the sheet resistance. Its units are ohms per square. The dimensionless quantity, L/W is the number of squares of resistive material in series between the contacts. Resistors of various values can be obtained by varying the width and length. The sheet

resistance is a process parameter dependent on doping: R sh = 1 σt = 1 qµn D t (1.8) where N D is an average doping. Usually doping varies with distance down from the surface of the silicon. N D t is the number of donors per unit area. 1.2.4 Diffusion Current The current flow mechanism responsible for the characteristics of diodes and transistors is diffusion. Diffusion current flows without being caused by an electric field. Electrons and holes in semiconductors are in constant thermal motion. When there is a nonuniform distribution of carriers (electrons or holes), random motion causes a net motion away from the region where the electrons or holes are more dense. Consider the nonuniform distribution of holes shown in Figure 1.5. The charged particles, represented by plus signs, are equally likely to move either to the right or to the left. Because there are more particles on the left there is a net motion of one particle to the right passing across each vertical plane. This situation can exist at a pn junction, where an unlimited supply of free carriers, caused by a forward bias voltage, allows a concentration gradient to be maintained. In Figure 1.5, carrier motion is indicated by the arrows. Random motion is modeled by grouping carriers together in pairs with opposite velocities so the average velocity is zero. The overall result is the movement of one carrier from each region of high concentration to the neighboring low concentration region. If the distribution of carriers is maintained, there will be a constant current flow from left to right. The diffusion current density for holes is given by J p = qd p dp dx (1.9) where J p is the current density, amperes/cm 2, D p is the diffusion constant and p is the hole density, holes/cm 2. Einstein s relation shows the diffusion constant for holes to be proportional to mobility [3, page 38]: D p = µ p V T (1.10) and for electrons D n = µ n V T (1.11)

Figure 1.5 The nonuniform distribution of randomly moving positive charges results in a systematic motion of charge. Here a positive current is moving to the right. where V T = KT/q is the thermal voltage. V T =26mV at room temperature. K is Boltzmann s constant. q =1.6x10 19 C is the electronic charge and T is the absolute temperature. It is not surprising that the mobility is proportional to the diffusion constant since both describe the motion of charge in the silicon crystal. 1.3 Pn Junctions Pn junctions are the building blocks of integrated circuit components. They serve as parts of active components, such as the base-emitter or collector-base junctions of a bipolar transistor, or as isolation between components, as is the case when an integrated resistor is fabricated in a reverse-biased tub. Each pn junction has a parasitic capacitance associated with it that affects device performance. Important properties such as breakdown voltage and output resistance are dependent on properties of pn junctions. Since this text isn t intended to teach device physics, we will review pn junctions only so far as is required to understand transistor operation. Consider apn junction under reverse bias conditions as shown in Figure 1.6, and assume that the doping is uniform in each section, with N D cm 3 donor atoms in the n-region and N A cm 3 acceptor atoms in the p-region. At the junction, there is a region devoid of electrons and holes. The electrons have moved from the n-region into the p-region where they recombine with holes. Similarly, holes move from the p-

region to the n-region where they recombine with electrons. This process leaves positive donor ions in the n-region and negative acceptor ions in the p-region. The donors and acceptors occupy fixed positions in the silicon crystal and cannot move. An electric field exists between the positive donor ions in the n-region and the negative acceptor ions in the p-region. As electrons leave the n-region for the p-region, the n- region becomes positively charged and the p-region becomes negatively charged. The electric field increases until it inhibits any further movement of holes and electrons. The region near the junction devoid of charge is called the space-charge region or depletion region. An approximation that results in an accurate model of the junction is to assume the depletion region to be well defined with a definite width with an abrupt change in the carrier concentration at the edge of the depletion region. The area outside the depletion region is the charge neutral region. In the n charge-neutral region the number of negatively charged electrons equals the number of positively charged donor atoms. In the charge-neutral region in the p material the number of positively charged holes equals the number of negatively charged acceptor atoms. Figure 1.6 Junction charge distribution and fields.

When there is no applied bias voltage, a built-in potential, denoted Ψ, exists due to the charge distribution across the junction. This potential is just large enough to counter the diffusion of mobile charge across the junction and results in the junction being at equilibrium with no net current flow. The value of this potential is [ ] NA N D Ψ=V T ln (1.12) where V T = kt/q is 26 mv at room temperature, and n i =1.5x10 15 cm 3 is the intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon. InFigure1.6, anappliedreversebiasisaddedtothebuilt-inpotential, and the total voltage found across the junction is Ψ + V R. If we assume the depletion region extends a distance x p into the p-region, and distance x n into the n-region, then n 2 i x p N A = x n N D (1.13) This is true because the charge on one side of the depletion region must be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the charge on the opposite side of the depletion region. From Gauss Law we have In one dimension, this reduces to Since D = ɛe, we have de dx = ρ ɛ Electric field can then be defined D = ρ (1.14) dd dx = ρ (1.15) E = dv dx (1.16) (1.17) Within the confines of the depletion region, the charge distribution ρ is equal to qn A coul/cm 3 in the p-region, and is equal to qn D coul/cm 3 in the n-region. The maximum value of the electric field across the depletion region is found at x = 0 and has a value E max = qn Ax p ɛ where ɛ is the permittivity of silicon. = qn Dx n ɛ (1.18)

We have assumed the depletion region and junction boundaries are sharp and well defined. Defining the potential between x = x p and x =0asV 1. 0 V 1 = Edx = x p qn Ax2 p 2ɛ (1.19) Similarly, if we define the potential between x = 0 and x = x n as V 2,we obtain xn V 2 = Edx = qn Dx 2 n (1.20) 0 2ɛ The voltage across the depletion region is then the sum of V 1 and V 2 and may be written Ψ o + V R = V 1 + V 2 = q 2ɛ [ NA x 2 p + N D x 2 n] (1.21) Factoring and using Equation 1.13: Ψ o + V R = qx2 pn 2 A 2ɛ [ 1 + 1 ] N A N D (1.22) Recall Equation 1.13, N A x p = N D x n. If one region is much more heavily doped than the other, the depletion region exists almost entirely in the lightly doped region. This leads to an approximation called the singlesided junction. For example, if N A N D, then x n x p. Since the total depletion width is x d = x p + x n, we can approximate x d x n. Since N D N A, Equation 1.22 becomes Ψ o + V R = qx2 nn 2 D 2ɛ [ 1 N D ] (1.23) The voltage across the junction exists across x n, and is approximately Ψ o + V R V 2. Also, from Equations 1.23 and 1.18, the width of the depletion region and the maximum electric field are 2ɛ(Ψ o + V R ) x d x n = (1.24) qn D 2qND (Ψ o + V R ) E max = (1.25) ɛ The width of the depletion region is an important parameter for the calculation of junction capacitance and the punch through breakdown voltage. The maximum electric field determines the avalanche breakdown voltage.

1.3.1 Breakdown Voltage When the maximum electric field, E max, exceeds the critical field of about 5x10 5 V/cm, free electrons in the depletion region gain enough energy from the field so that when they strike a silicon atom, it ionizes producing an additional electron hole pair. This is an avalanche effect, where each conduction electron is multiplied with each impact with the silicon lattice. All resulting carriers contribute to the current. This is avalanche breakdown. The reverse voltage equals the breakdown voltage when the maximum electric field equals the critical field. Therefore, using Equation 1.25, the breakdown voltage is V BD = ɛe 2 c 2qN D (1.26) where E c is the critical field and V BD is the reverse breakdown voltage applied to the junction. The built-in potential Ψ o has been dropped. It is typically about 0.8 V. The critical field is a function of processing. It increases with doping. If the width of the depletion region exceeds the dimensions of the device, punch through breakdown occurs. The depletion region extends to the contact where carriers are available to contribute to current. For example, in the single-sided p + n junction, the depletion region is mainly in the lightly doped n-side. In the depletion region, the electric field acts to keep electrons in the n-region and holes in the p-region. Any holes in the depletion region are accelerated toward the p-side by the electric field. When the depletion region reaches the contact, holes at the contact are accelerated across the depletion region toward the p-side of the junction. A large current flows. This is punch through breakdown. Sample Problem A pn junction fabricated in silicon has doping densities N A = 10 15 atoms per cm 3 and N D = 10 16 atoms per cm 3. Calculate the built-in potential, the junction depths in both regions, and the maximum electric field with V R = 10 V. Calculate the depletion width assuming a singlesided junction. How much error is created using this approximation? Answer a) From Equation 1.12, we have [ 10 15 10 16 ] Ψ o =26mV ln (1.5x10 10 ) 2 = 638 mv

b) From Equation 1.22, we have, for the p-region 0.638+10= qx2 pna 2 [ 1 2ɛ 10 15 + 1 ] 10 16 10.638 1.1 2ɛ = x 2 p qn A x p =3.5x10 4 cm =3.5µm From Equation 1.13, we have c) From Equation 1.18, we have x n = x p N A N D =0.35µm E max = 1.6x10 19 10 15 3.5x10 4 1.04x10 12 = 5.4x10 4 V cm d) If we assume the depletion region exists entirely within the p-region, the depletion width is equal to x d = x p =3.5µm e) The actual width of the depletion region is x d = x p +x n = 3.85µm. The error introduced is 10% for this example; however, if the doping difference was an order of magnitude larger, say N D =10 17, the error would only be 1%. Since the difference in doping for most pn junctions built today is usually a factor of 100 or more, the single-sided junction is a good approximation in many cases. 1.3.2 Junction Capacitance When the voltage applied to the junction changes, the width of the depletion region changes. This requires charges to be added or removed. For an increase in the reverse applied voltage, the n-side is made more positive than the p-side. Electrons are removed from the n-side and holes are removed from the p-side. A positive current flows into the n-side contact and out the p-side contact. The width of the depletion region increases. The incremental capacitance is defined as the charge that flows divided by the change in voltage. The structure acts like a parallel plate capacitor with the capacitance equal to C J = ɛa x d (1.27)

where A is the cross-sectional area of the junction. Since x d, the width of the depletion region, is a function of voltage, the junction capacitance is also a function of voltage. Plugging Equation 1.24 into Equation 1.27 C J = C J0 1+ V R Ψo (1.28) where ɛqnd C J0 = A (1.29) 2Ψ o Equations 1.29 and 1.27 apply to the single-sided junction with uniform doping in the p-sides and n-sides. If the doping varies linearly with distance, junction capacitance varies inversely as the cube root of applied voltage. 1.3.3 The Law of the Junction The law of the junction is used to calculate electron and hole densities in pn junctions. It is based on Boltzmann statistics. Consider two sets of energy states. They are identical, except that set 1, at energy level E 1, is occupied by N 1 electrons and set 2, at energy level E 2, is occupied by N 2 electrons. The Boltzmann assumption is that N 2 = e E 2 E 1 KT (1.30) N 1 In a pn junction, the built-in potential Ψ o, across the junction causes an energy difference. The conduction band edge on the p-side of the junction is at a higher energy than the conduction band on the n-side of the junction. On the n-side of the junction, outside the depletion region, the density of electrons is N D, the donor concentration. On the p-side of the junction, outside the depletion region, the density of electrons in the conduction band is n 2 1/N A. Conduction band states in the n-side are occupied but conduction band states in the p-side tend to be unoccupied. Boltzmann s Equation 1.30 can be used to find the relationship between the densities of conduction electrons on the n-sides and p-sides of the junction and the junction built-in potential. Let N 1 equal the density of conduction electrons on the p-side of the junction and N 2 equal the density of electrons on the n-side of the junction. Then using Equation 1.30, N 2 = n2 i = e Ψo V T N 1 N A N D [ n 2 ] i Ψ o = V T ln N A N D

where V T = KT/q is the thermal voltage. And since potential (voltage) is energy per unit charge and the charge involved is -q, the charge of an electron, Ψ o, the potential of the n-side of the junction relative to the p-side due to the different doping on the p-sides and n-sides: Ψ o = (E 2 E 1 )/q. The relationship between voltage and electron energy is a point of confusion. The voltage is the negative of the energy expressed in electron volts. If electron energy is expressed in Joules, the voltage is the energy per unit charge, V = E/q, where the electronic charge is q. The minus sign is due to the negative charge on electrons. Where voltage is higher, electronic energy is lower. Electrons move to higher voltages where their energy is lower. If a forward voltage is applied to the junction, it subtracts from the built-in potential. It reduces the barrier to the flow of carriers across the junction. Holes move from the p-side to the n-side and electrons move from the n-side to the p-side. This is the injection process described by the law of the junction. Boltzmann statistics predicts p n (0), the hole density at the edge of the depletion region in the n-side of the junction p n (0) = p n0 e Va V T (1.31) where p n0 = n 2 i /N D is the equilibrium hole concentration in the n-side and V a is the applied voltage. Applying a forward voltage decreases the energy of the levels on the n-side occupied by holes. Equation 1.31 uses Boltzmann s statistics to determine the density of holes on the n-side of the junction as a function of the applied forward voltage V a. With no applied forward voltage the hole density on the n-side is equal to the equilibrium density p n0. With an applied forward voltage, the hole energy levels on the n-side decrease and the number of holes increase exponentially. Equation 1.31 is referred to as the law of the junction. A similar equation applies to electrons injected into the p-side. 1.3.4 Diffusion Capacitance Forward current in a pn junction is due to diffusion and requires a gradient of minority carriers. For example, in the p + n single-sided junction, current is dominated by holes injected into the n-side. These holes injected into the n-region are called excess holes because they cause the number of holes to exceed the equilibrium number. The excess holes represent charge stored in the junction. If the voltage applied to the diode V be changes, the number of holes stored in the n-region changes. Figure 1.7 shows aplot of the holes in the n-region as afunction of x.

The number of holes in the n-region decreases from the injected value at the boundary of the n-region and the depletion region (x =0)to the equilibrium hole concentration at the contact. The total charge due to the holes stored in the n-region is the total number of holes in the n-region multiplied by q, the charge per hole Q = AqW B [p n (0) p n0 ] 2 = AqW Bn 2 i 2N D [ ] e V be V T +1 (1.32) where p n0 = n 2 i /N D has been used, A is the junction area, and W B is the distance of the n-side contact from the junction. Diffusion capacitance describes the incremental change in charge Q due to an incremental change in voltage V be.forv be greater than a few V T, e V be v T 1 and the 1 can be dropped in Equation 1.32. Then the diffusion capacitance is C diff = Q = AqW Bn 2 i e Vbe V T (1.33) V be 2N D V T Diffusion capacitance is significant only in forward biased pn junction diodes where it increases exponentially with applied voltage. 1.4 Diode Current Diffusion is the dominant mechanism for current flow in pn junctions. Carriers injected across the depletion region produce a carrier density gradient that results in diffusion current flow. Holes are injected from the p-side to the n-side and electrons are injected from the n-side to the p-side. Current density due to diffusion is a function of the concentration gradient and of the carrier mobility. Consider the component of current due to holes injected into the n-region. Current density (amperes per cm 2 )is dp J p = qd p (1.34) dx where D p is the diffusion constant in cm 2 per second, q is electronic charge in coulombs, and dp dx is the hole concentration gradient in holes per cm 3 per cm (cm 4 ). In the short diode approximation, the width of the n neutral region from the depletion region to the contact W B is short, recombination is neglected. This is true for most bipolar integrated devices where dimensions are less than a few microns. When recombination is neglected, the hole density gradient is constant as shown in Figure 1.7. The hole concentration gradient is the slope of p n (x) as shown in Figure 1.7:

Figure 1.7 Holes injected into the n-side of the pn junction become minority carriers that diffuse across the n neutral region. P n0 = n 2 i /N D is the equilibrium density of holes in the n-region. dp dx = p n(0) p n0 W B (1.35) Heavy doping at the contact reduces carrier lifetime and causes the hole concentration to equal the equilibrium concentration, p n0. Using the law of the junction, Equation 1.31, and Equation 1.35, the hole current density, Equation 1.34 becomes J p = qd pp n0 W B [ ] e V be V T 1 (1.36) where P n0 = n 2 i /N D. There is a similar expression for the current due to electrons injected in to the p-side. The total current density is the sum of the electron and hole components [ qdp n 2 i J = + qd nn 2 ][ ] i e V be V T 1 (1.37) N D W B N A W A where W A is the distance of the contact on the p-side to the depletion region. Typically one side of the junction is more heavily doped than the other. For the case where the p-side is the heavily doped side, hole current dominates over electron current and Equation 1.37 reduces to J = qd pn 2 [ ] i e V be V T 1 (1.38) N D W B The diode current in amperes is the current density multiplied by the cross-sectional area A I = AqD pn 2 [ ] i e V be V T 1 (1.39) N D W B

We now define a process constant called saturation current I s where I s = qd pan 2 i N D W B (1.40) Equation 1.39 becomes [ ] I = I s e V be V T 1 (1.41) Equation 1.41 is called the rectifier equation. It describes the pn junction voltage current relationship. It is the governing equation not only for pn junction diodes but bipolar transistors as well. For typical integrated circuit diodes and transistors I s is quite small (10 16 is a typical value). Since I s is small, the term in the brackets has to be large for measurable currents. That means the 1 in the bracket is negligible and can be dropped for V be more than a few V T. For V be =0.1 V, e V be V T =46.8, since V T =0.026 V at room temperature. Equation 1.41 becomes I = I s e V be V T (1.42) Small changes in V be produce large changes in current. For typical values of I s, V be is about 0.7 V for forward conducting silicon diodes. Example If V be =0.7 V when I = 100 µa, what is I s? Answer I s = Ie V be V T =10 4 e 0.7 0.026 =2x10 16 A 1.5 Bipolar Transistors The structure of avertical npn transistor is shown in Figure 1.8. The transistor is formed by growing a lightly doped n-type epitaxial layer on a p-type substrate. This layer becomes the collector. The p-type base is diffused into the epitaxial collector and the n-type emitter is diffused into the base as shown in Figure 1.8. Ap-type isolation well (ISO) is diffused from the surface to the substrate. During circuit operation, the substrate is biased at the lowest voltage in the circuit. This reverse biases the collector-iso pn junction isolating the collector epi. In normal operation the base-emitter pn junction is forward biased and the base-collector pn junction is reversed biased. Since the emitter is more

Figure 1.8 The structure of a vertical npn transistor is shown. The p-type substrate and iso are held at a low voltage, reverse biasing the substrate-epi pn junction to isolate the transistor. The high conductivity buried layer provides a low resistance path for collector current. heavily doped than the base, the forward current across the base-emitter junction is dominated by electrons. The electrons injected into the base cause an electron concentration gradient in the base that results in diffusion of electrons across the p-type base. 1.5.1 Collector Current The law of the junction, Equation 1.31, expresses the electron concentration in the base at the edge of the base-emitter depletion region, as a function of the voltage applied to the base-emitter junction. It also expresses the electron concentration in the base at the edge of the base-collector depletion region as a function of the voltage applied to the base-collector junction. In the base at the edge of the base-emitter depletion region, the electron concentration is n p (0) = n2 i e V be V T (1.43) N D The electron concentration in the base at the emitter is many orders of magnitude greater than the equilibrium concentration. In the base at the collector the electron concentration is n p (W B )= n2 i e V bc V T (1.44) N D where V bc is the voltage applied to the base relative to the collector. In normal operation the collector is biased positive relative to the base, so V bc is a negative voltage. The exponent in Equation 1.44 is a large negative number and the electron concentration in the base at the collector approaches zero. This is illustrated in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9 The gradient of the minority carrier concentration dnp(x) in the dx base determines the collector current. Electrons diffusing across the base to the collector results in collector current that depends on the electron density gradient in the base I c = A E qd n dn dx (1.45) where A E is the emitter area. The minus sign is because I c flows in the negative x direction. For a transistor biased in the normal operating range, V bc is a negative number and n p (W B )approaches zero. From Figure 1.9 Using Equation 1.46 in Equation 1.45, where dn dx = n p(0) W B (1.46) I c = I s e V be V T (1.47) I s = A EqD n n 2 i W B N D (1.48) and where N D is the base doping, donors per cm 3. Equation 1.47 describes the collector current as a function of base to emitter voltage. It is an important equation, widely used in bipolar circuit design. 1.5.2 Base Current Bipolar transistors are current gain devices. The collector current is a multiple of the base current. The current gain β = I c /I b varies over a wide range for transistors produced by a given process. Generally better, higher gains are achieved by reducing base current I b. Two physical

mechanisms are responsible for base current. The first is due to holes injected from the base to the emitter. With the base-emitter junction forward biased, electrons are injected from the emitter to the base and holes are injected from the base to the emitter. The electrons diffuse across the base to the collector where they form the main component of collector current. Holes injected into the emitter from the base are the main source of base current. Every hole leaving the base has to be replaced by a hole from the base contact, thereby producing base current. Holes are injected from the base to the emitter in order to maintain the hole density p n (0) in the n-type emitter at the edge of the base-emitter depletion region, predicted by the law of the junction p n (0) = p n0 e V be V T (1.49) where p n0 = n 2 i /N DE is the equilibrium hole concentration in the emitter. N DE is the donor doping concentration in the emitter. Holes injected into the emitter diffuse to the emitter contact. Assuming negligible recombination in the emitter, this hole current is given by Equation 1.41 applied here to hole current in the npn base-emitter junction [ ] I b = I se e V be V T 1 (1.50) where I se = qd pa E n 2 i N DE W E (1.51) where D p is the diffusion constant for holes in the emitter and W E is the distance of the emitter-base junction to the emitter contact. Recombination in the base also contributes to base current. Every hole that recombines with an electron has to be replaced by a hole from the base contact. This contributes to base current. For modern integrated circuit transistors, this component is small. Here we ignore it. The transistor gain β is the ratio of I c /I b. Using Equations 1.47 and 1.50 β = I c = D n W E N DE. (1.52) I b D p W B N A High β is achieved by keeping the width of the base W B small and doping the emitter more heavily than the base. 1.5.3 Ebers-Moll Model The Ebers-Moll model describes the large signal DC operation of the bipolar transistor. Consider the distribution of minority carriers shown in Figure 1.10. Weare interested in three components of current:

Figure 1.10 Minority carrier distribution in an npn transistor. 1. I pe holes flowing in the n-type emitter. 2. I nc electrons flowing in the p-type base. 3. I pc holes flowing in the n-type collector. I nc is composed of electrons injected from the emitter that diffuse across the base and are swept into the collector by the base-collector junction potential. The emitter current is composed of this current plus holes diffusing across the emitter I E = (I pe + I nc ) (1.53) The collector current is due to electrons diffusing across the base to the base-collector depletion region, and holes diffusing across the collector to the base-collector depletion region I C = I nc I pc (1.54) Here we observe the convention of positive currents flowing into the transistor. The current flow mechanism is diffusion I nc = A E qd n dn dx = A EqD n n p (0) n p (W B ) W B (1.55) Invoking the Law of the Junction, Equation 1.31, to determine carrier densities I nc = A EqD n n 2 [ ] i e V be V T e V bc V T (1.56) W B N A Similarly, and I pe = A EqD pe n 2 i W E N de I pc = A CqD pc n 2 i W epi N dc [ ] e V be V T 1 [ ] e V bc V T 1 (1.57) (1.58)

where A E is the emitter area, q is the electronic charge, D n is the electron diffusion constant in the base, n i is the intrinsic carrier concentration, W B is the base width, N A is the base doping, V T = KT/q is the thermal voltage, D ne is the diffusion constant in the emitter, W E is the emitter width, N de is the emitter doping, A C is the area of the collector-base junction, D pc is the hole diffusion constant in the collector, W epi is the width of the collector, and N dc is the collector doping. Rewriting Equations 1.56, 1.57, and 1.58 using constants, A, B, C, where A = A EqD n n 2 i W B N A B = A EqD pe n 2 i W E N de C = A CqD pc n 2 i W epi N dc Using the constants A, B, and C in Equations 1.56, 1.57, and 1.58: [ ] I nc = A e V be V T e V bc V T [ ] I pe = B e V be V T 1 (1.59) [ ] I pc = C e V bc V T 1 Plugging Equations 1.59 into Equations 1.53 and 1.54: [ ] I E = A e V be V T e V bc V T + B [ e V be 1 ] [ ] I E = A e V be V T e V bc V T + C [ e V bc 1 ] Note there are only three constants A, B, and C. If the following new constants are defined: I ES = (A + B) I CS = (C A) α R I CS = α F I ES = A then I E = I ES (e V be V T 1) + α R I CS (e V bc V T 1) (1.60) I C = α F I ES (e V be V T 1) I CS (e V bc V T 1) (1.61)

Figure 1.11 V be Ebers-Moll model I F = I ES(e V T V bc 1) I R = I CS(e V T 1). Equations 1.60 and 1.61 describe the Ebers-Moll model. A schematic diagramfortheebers-mollmodel,isshowninfigure1.11. Inthenormal operating range, the base-collector junction is reversed biased. V bc is a negative voltage. e V bc V T = 0 Under this condition Equations 1.60 and 1.61 become I E = I ES (e V be V T 1) α R I CS (1.62) Neglecting the small leakage current I CS I C = α F I ES (e V be V T 1) + I CS (1.63) α F is slightly less than one. The base current is The transistor current gain is I E = I ES (e V be V T 1) (1.64) I C = α F I E (1.65) I B = (I C + I E )=I C ( 1 α F 1) (1.66) I C = h FE = β F = α F (1.67) I B 1 α F When β F = 100, α F =0.99. For larger β, α gets closer to 1. 1.5.4 Breakdown When the electric field in a reversed biased pn junction exceeds a critical value of about 3x10 5 V/cm the junction breaks down causing current to flow. In breakdown, the junction voltage is stable over a wide range

of currents. A pn junction in breakdown is used as a voltage reference called a zener diode. If current is limited, the junction recovers when the reverse voltage is reduced. Designers use these zeners for a wide variety of clipping and protection circuits. Transistors are designed to operate over a range of voltages without breakdown occuring. In bipolar transistors, higher breakdown voltages are achieved by reducing collector (epi) doping. In the normal operating mode, breakdown in bipolar transistors occurs at the reversed biased base-collector junction. There are two breakdown voltages of interest: BV CBO and BV CEO. BV CBO is less than BV CEO. BV CEO is the collector-base breakdown voltage with the emitter open. BV CBO is the collector-emitter breakdown voltage with the base open. Electron-hole pairs are generated at the base-collector junction by the breakdown process. The collector-base junction electric field moves the holes into the p-type base. This constitutes base current and is amplified by transistor action producing a larger collector current. Holes accumulating in the floating base raise the base potential. This forward biases the base-emitter junction, turning the transistor on. Assuming an avalanche multiplication mechanism, we can derive a relationship between BV CBO and BV CEO. As the collector-base voltage V cb approaches the breakdown voltage BV CBO currents normally flowing through the junction are multiplied by a factor M given by the empirical relation 1 M = ( ) n (1.68) 1 Vcb BV CBO Since the avalanche multiplication process increases the collector current by a factor of M I C = Mα F I E h FE = I C = Mα F I B 1 Mα F At breakdown, M =1/α F and the current gain h FE goes to infinity. Setting M equal to 1/α F and V cb equal to BV CEO in Equation 1.68 BV CEO = BV CBO n 1 α F BV CBO (h FE ) 1 n (1.69) BV CEO can be substantially less than BV CBO. n is between 2 and 4 in silicon. If h FE = 100 and n =3,BV CEO is approximately one fifth of BV CBO. 1.6MOS Transistors Arepresentation of amos transistor is shown in Figure 1.12. The gate-oxide-substrate form the metal-oxide-silicon (MOS) structure. The

Figure 1.12 NMOS Transistor. aluminum gates of early transistors have been replaced by polycrystalline silicon (POLY) because poly has a higher melting point. This permits the gate to be placed before the source and drain. With the gate in place first, it acts as a mask for the source and drain diffusions, producing selfaligned structures. The heavily doped poly has a high conductivity. It behaves like a metal. Current flow between the source and the drain is controlled by the gate voltage. For the NMOS transistor shown, a positive gate voltage attracts electrons to the p-type substrate region between the source and drain, turning the transistor on. When the voltage applied to the gate is below a threshold, there are no mobile electrons in the channel between the source and drain. No current flows. The drain to substrate and substrate to source silicon regions represent two back to back pn junctions, blocking current flow in either direction. With a positive voltage applied to the drain relative to the source, the drain-substrate pn junction is reversed biased. The source substrate pn junction is forward biased. A positive gate voltage attracts mobile electrons to the interface between the silicon and the oxide below the gate. These electrons form the channel. Channel electrons drifting to the substrate-drain pn junction are swept across by the drain-substrate junction voltage. This forms the drain current. For a channel of mobile electrons to form, the gate to source voltage must exceed a threshold voltage. The MOS structure is a capacitor formed by the poly gate, the oxide, and the silicon substrate. A positive voltage on the gate relative to the substrate results in a positive charge on the poly and a negative charge in the substrate at the substrate-oxide interface. Initially, at low gate voltages, the negative charge in the p-type silicon substrate is due to the absence of positively charged holes. This negative charge is ionized acceptor atoms. As the gate voltage becomes more positive, a depletion region forms as holes are repelled by the positive gate voltage. As the gate voltage increases further, the negative

Figure 1.13 Band bending at the onset of moderate inversion. charge in the silicon increases to include electrons as well as ionized acceptors. The electrons are mobile and can contribute to current flow. A positive gate voltage reduces electron energy in the silicon under the gate. This can be represented using the band diagram shown in Figure 1.13. With electrons as carriers in the p-type silicon, the channel is said to be inverted. It is convenient to define the onset of moderate inversion to be when the bands at the silicon surface at the oxide interface are 2φ f below their values in the bulk away from the surface. The surface is at a voltage 2φ f above the bulk due to the influence of the gate. Recall that voltage is energy per unit charge. Since electrons have a negative charge, when electron energy decreases, voltage increases. Also φ f, the Fermi energy, is the position of the intrinsic energy level relative to the Fermi level in the bulk semiconductor as shown in Figure 1.13. The gate to bulk voltage at the onset of moderate inversion is the sum of: 1. The surface potential V s. This is the voltage at the oxide interface relative to the bulk. 2. The voltage across the oxide. 3. The contact potential between the gate and the bulk Φ ms. V GB = V s + V ox +Φ ms (1.70) At the onset of moderate inversion V s =2φ f asshown in Figure 1.13. The voltage across the oxide is the electric field in the oxide multiplied by the oxide thickness t ox. From Gauss law, the electric field in the oxide is the charge per unit area on the gate divided by the oxide permittivity: E ox = Q G /ɛ ox. The voltage across the oxide is V ox = E ox t ox = Q G ɛ ox t ox (1.71)

Since the positive charge on the gate must be balanced by negative charge in the silicon and in the oxide Q G = Q B Q ox + Q I (1.72) where Q B is the charge due to ionized acceptors in the depletion region. Q B = qn A x d where N A is the substrate doping and x d is the width of the depletion region. Q ox is positive charge trapped in the oxide. Here we assume Q ox is all trapped at the oxide silicon interface. Q I is charge due to mobile electrons in the channel. At the onset of moderate inversion, Q I is small and does not contribute to Q G. The charge Q B, due to ionized acceptors in the depletion region depends on V s, the surface potential. V s is the amount the bands are bent. V s is the voltage across the depletion region. Equation 1.24 describing the depletion region in a pn junction can be used to determine the width of the depletion region and the charge Q B Q B = 2qN A ɛv s At the onset of moderate inversion V s =2φ f Q B = 4qN A ɛφ f From Equations 1.70, 1.71 and 1.72 V GB =Φ ms + V s + Q B Q ox ɛ ox t ox (1.73) Since the gate capacitance per unit area is C ox = t ox ɛ ox V GB =Φ ms + V s + Q B Q ox C ox At the onset of moderate inversion V s =2φ f. V GB =Φ ms Q ox 4qNA ɛφ f +2φ f + (1.74) C ox C ox V GB, given in Equation 1.74, is the gate to bulk voltage at the threshold, when the transistor begins to turn on. When the bulk is connected to the source V GB, the gate to bulk voltage at the onset of moderate inversion is V TO, the gate to source threshold voltage at zero bulk bias V TO =Φ ms Q ox C ox +2φ f + γ 2φ f (1.75)

Figure 1.14 The gate to body voltage, V GB is the sum of the surface potential, V s, the voltage across the oxide, Vox, and the body to gate contact potential Φ ms. where γ = 2qN A ɛ/c ox. γ (GAMMA) is the body effect parameter. The contact potential between the gate and the bulk Φ ms contributes to the gate voltage. Consider Figure 1.14. When the gate is shorted to the bulk, V GB = 0, there is an internal contact potential that can be expressed in terms of the positions of the Fermi levels relative to the intrinsic level in the polysilicon gate and the bulk. In the bulk, the position of the Fermi level relative to the intrinsic level is φ f. In the gate, the position of the Fermi level depends on the gate material. The two cases of interest for MOS transistors are polysilicon gates heavily doped either n-type or p-type. For n-type poly gates the Fermi level approaches the conduction band and is E g /2 above the intrinsic level. For p-type gates the Fermi level approaches the valence band and is E g /2 below the intrinsic level. When the gate is shorted to the bulk, charge moves and the energy bands adjust so the Fermi levels will be the same in both materials. This results in a contact potential of Φ ms = ± E g 2 φ f (1.76) where E g /2 is positive for p-type poly gates and negative for n-type poly gates. When the gate is a metal instead of polysilicon, this contact potential would be expressed as the difference in the work functions of the gate and bulk. In the complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) structure shown in Figure 1.15, NMOS and PMOS transistors work together to

realize circuit functions. Figure 1.15 shows one CMOS implementation with an NMOS transistor in a p-well and a PMOS transistor in the n-type epitaxial layer. While most of the discussion in this chapter involves the NMOS transistor, the PNOS transistor functions in the same way with the difference that diffusion types are reversed. N-type is replaced by p-type, and p-type is replaced by n-type. Voltage polarities and current directions are also reversed. Current flow in the channel of PMOS transistors is due to holes rather than electrons. As more holes are attracted to the channel, the more negative the gate to source voltage becomes. This complementary nature of NMOS and PMOS transistors is useful in the design of analog and digital circuits. Figure 1.15 CMOS structure. 1.6.1 Simple MOS Model A simple model for the MOS transistor, useful for hand calculations, can be derived by considering the channel to be a variable resistor whose value depends on the gate to channel voltage, then summing the voltage across this channel resistance from the source to the drain. Here we use the source as the voltage reference point by setting the source voltage equal to zero. With the source as the voltage reference, V g = V gs. The drain current I D flowing in the channel causes the channel voltage V cs, and therefore the gate to channel voltage V gc to be a function of the distance xfrom the source as shown in Figure 1.16. V gc is the voltage across the oxide. The channel consists of electrons attracted by the positive gate voltage. The mobile charge in the channel is Q(x) =C ox (V gc V th ) Coul/square meter (1.77) where C ox is the capacitance of the gate oxide per unit gate area. The channel does not exist until V gc is greater than the threshold voltage V th. That is, V gs V cs V th > 0. Also the maximum value of V cs is

Figure 1.16 The channel resistance varies with x because channel voltage and therefore mobile charge varies with x. V ds. Therefore, since the largest value of V cs is V ds, V gs V th must be greater than V ds for this derivation to hold. Otherwise, at the drain end of the channel where the channel voltage is the greatest, there will be no mobile charge. The resistive channel can be represented as a series of small resistances dr. The current I D flowing through these resistances causes the voltage drop in the channel. The voltage across each of these incremental resistances is dv cs = I D dr where dr = dx/(σtw) where W is the width of the gate and σ is the conductivity of the channel and t is the effective channel thickness. σ = charge per unit volume times the mobility σ = µq(x) t where Q(x) is the mobile channel charge per unit gate area. Q(x)/t is the mobile channel charge per unit volume. Therefore, dr = dx/[µq(x)w ]. Using Equation 1.77 for Q(x) dv cs = Rearrange and integrate I D dx µw C ox (V gs V cs V th ) L 0 Vds I D dx = µw C ox (V gs V th V cs ) dv cs 0 I D = µc ox (W/L) [(V gs V th )V ds V 2 ] ds 2 V ds <V gs V th

I D increases as V ds increases to a maximum value that occurs when V ds = V gs V th. Saturation Drain current is self limiting. As the drain to source voltage V ds increases, drain current increases. This increases the channel voltage reducing the gate to channel voltage and the mobile channel charge. When V ds >V gs V t, Q(x) vanishes at the drain end of the channel causing the transistor to operate in the saturation or constant current region. Voltages applied to the drain are absorbed across the channeldrain depletion region where no mobile charge exists. The drain is more positive than the channel. Channel electrons entering this depletion region are swept into the drain by the built-in potential and the voltage applied to the drain. Since increases in drain voltages appear across the drain-channel depletion region, channel voltages and therefore channel current does not change with drain voltage. The drain current remains constant with changes in drain voltage. With all voltages referenced to the source, V g becomes V gs and the drain current is ] µ n C ox [(V gs V th ) V ds V 2 ds 2 V ds V gs V th I D = (1.78) µ nc ox 2 (V gs V th ) 2 V ds V gs V th Equation 1.78 is a simple model useful for hand calculations. 1.7 DMOS Transistors Double diffused MOS (DMOS) transistors rely on the control of the lateral diffusion to achieve short channel lengths. One implementation is shown in Figure 1.17. Polysilicon is grown over athin oxide and a small hole is etched in the polysilicon. A p-well is diffused through the hole into the n-type epitaxial layer. The p-well diffuses laterally as well as vertically into the epi. The center of the hole is masked and a second diffusion is done. This time the n-type source is diffused through the hole. These two diffusions define the MOS transistor. The epi acts as the drain. The channel forms in the p-well between the source and the epi drain. The length of the channel is the difference between the lateral diffusion of the p-well and the source. The width is approximately the perimeter of the hole in the polysilicon. A heavily doped P-diffusion is placed in the center of the device through the n-source diffusion to the p-well. This diffusion is used to make contact with the p-well. The hole is then covered with metal. A metal contact shorts the p-well to the

Figure 1.17 A double diffused DMOS transistor is fabricated by diffusing first a p-well into the n-type epi through a hole in the polysilicon. A second n-type diffusion forms the source. The epi acts as drain and the channel forms in the p-well. Channel length depends on lateral diffusion of the p-well and the n-type source. source. The drain contact is made to the epi. Arrays of these devices result in efficient layouts for power transistors. 1.8 Zener Diodes Pn junctions operating in breakdown are used as voltage references and in clipping and clamping circuits. The breakdown voltage varies inversely with the square root of the doping in the lightly doped side of the junction, as described in Equation 1.26. If a zener is to survive breakdown, it is important that the current be distributed across the cross-sectional area of the junction. Doping and electric field nonuniformity results in breakdown occurring first where the doping and the electric field are largest. The deep buried layer iso zener, shown in Figure 1.18, has asmooth cross-sectional area with auniform distribution of dopants. Currents tend to be distributed over a larger area than in the surface, shallow-n shallow-p zener shown in Figure 1.18, where doping varies with distance from the surface and has sharp corners where the electric field is large. These zeners are destroyed by large currents. They fail at corners near the surface. If the current is limited by external circuits so that power dissipation in the junction is maintained within safe limits, the junction is not damaged. Pn junctions operated in reverse breakdown are called zener diodes and are used as voltage references or in clipping and clamping circuits for protection of sensitive structures.

Figure 1.18 A. The deep lying pn junction formed by the buried layer and the isolation diffusion breaks down at about 12 V and can conduct large currents. B. The pn junction formed at the surface using shallow-n (SN) and shallow-p (SP) diffusions breaks down at about 6 V. 1.9 EpiFETs Large value resistors can be achieved by enhancing the sheet resistance of the epitaxial layer with a junction field effect transistor called an epifet. Figure 1.19 Current flow in the n-type epitaxial region is restricted by the depletion region associated with the base-epi pn junction. Sheet resistance of the epifet can be significantly higher than the epi sheet resistance. P-type base diffusion, shown in Figure 1.19, in the lightly doped n- type epitaxial layer(epi) forms a junction field effect transistor(jfet). Current flowing in the epi is modulated by voltages on the P-type base diffusion acting as the JFET gate. The depletion region associated with the base-epi pn junction increases in size as the gate becomes more negative relative to the epi. As the width of the depletion region increases, it penetrates further into the epi, robbing the epi of carriers. This reduces current flow in the epi creating an apparent increase in epi resistance. The width of the depletion region x d increases when the epi to gate voltage increases. Since the drain is at a higher voltage than the source, the depletion region is wider at the drain. Current tends to be self-limiting, as shown in Figure 1.20, since it increases the epi voltage and therefore