RADIOACTIVITY & HALF-LIFE Part 2 Radioactivity Radioactivity: Results from radioactive decay, which is the process whereby unstable atomic nuclei transform and emit radiation. Has existed longer than the human race. Most elements are not radioactive (99.9%) Elements greater than 82 may be radioactive 1
Radioactivity Types of radiation: alpha ( ) carries positive electrical charge beta ( ) carries negative electrical charge gamma ( ) carries no charge The Atomic Nucleus and the Strong Nuclear Force The strong nuclear force (SNF) : a very distance sensitive attraction between nucleons. Strong nuclear force Binds protons and neutrons Very short ranged, less than 10-15 m Overcomes proton-proton Coulomb repulsion 2
The Atomic Nucleus and the Strong Nuclear Force The presence of neutrons helps hold the nucleus together. The Atomic Nucleus and the Strong Nuclear Force But in large nuclei, far-apart neutrons are less effective in holding a nucleus together. Repulsive forces (Coulomb proton-proton repulsion) overcomes the now weakening SNF 3
Types of Radioactive Decay 1. Alpha emission Expulsion of helium nucleus Least penetrating: stopped by paper 2. Beta emission Expulsion of an electron More penetrating: 1 cm of aluminum 3. Gamma decay Emission of a high-energy photon Most penetrating: 5 cm of lead 2 86 Rn 218 84 Po+ 4 2 He 14 6C 14 7 N+ 0 1 e 2 86 Rn * 2 86 Rn+ 00 Transmutation Natural transmutation: Alpha emission from a nucleus: mass number decreases by 4 atomic number decreases by 2 resulting atom belongs to an element two places back in periodic table Naturally 4
Alpha Particle Emission Radium-226 decays by alpha emission. Identify X 226 A 4 Ra Z X + 88 2He 1. First, balance the number of protons: 88 = Z + 2, so Z = 86 (Rn) 2. Balance the number of protons plus neutrons: 226 = A + 4, so A = 222 226 222 4 88 Ra 86 Rn + 2He Transmutation Natural transmutation: Beta emission from a nucleus: no change in mass number no loss in nucleons atomic number increases by 1 resulting atom belongs to an element one place forward in periodic table Gamma emission from a nucleus: no change in mass number no change in atomic number 5
Natural transmutation: Beta Particle Emission Some radioactive nuclides decay by beta emission. Radium-228 loses a beta particle to yield actinium-228. 228 228 0 88 Ra 89 Ac + 1e Natural transmutation: Gamma Ray Emission For example, uranium-233 decays by releasing both alpha particles and gamma rays. 233 229 4 92 U Th 2He 90 + + 0 0 Note that a gamma ray has a mass and a charge of zero, so it has no net effect on the nuclear reaction. 6
Natural transmutation In class question Problems Nitrogen-17 is a beta emitter. What is the isotope produced in the radioactive decay? 7
Transmutation Ernest Rutherford s cloud-chamber experiment in 1919 succeeded in transmuting a chemical element. After bombardment of nitrogen gas with alpha particles from a radioactive piece of ore, he found traces of oxygen and hydrogen. Since then, synthetic elements have been produced from atomic numbers 93 to 115, all with short half-lives. Artificial Transmutation: Transmutation Artificial Transmutation of elements: the changing of one chemical element to another occurring in artificially in labs artificial transmutation artificially 8
Agricultural Applications of Radionuclides Gamma radiation is used to sterilize male insects instead of killing them with pesticides. Cobalt-60 emits gamma rays when it decays and is often used in agriculture. Gamma-irradiation of food is used to kill microorganisms. Nuclear Medicine The term nuclear medicine refers to the use of radionuclides for medical purposes. Iodine-131 is used to measure thyroid activity. The gas xenon-133 is used to diagnose respiratory problems. Iron-59 is used to diagnose anemia. Breast cancer can be treated using the isotope iridium-192. 9
Half-Life Half-life: is the rate of decay for a radioactive isotope. is the time required for half of an original quantity of an element to decay. is constant and independent of any physical or chemical change the atom may undergo. can be calculated at any given moment by measuring the rate of decay of a known quantity using a radiation detector. Half-Life Radioactive isotopes decay at a rate characteristic of each isotope. Rates are described by half-life. The shorter the half-life of a substance the faster it disintegrates and the more active the substance. 1620 +1620 +1620 10
Half-Life and Transmutation CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR A certain isotope has a half-life decay shown on the graph below. What is the half life of this isotope? The amount of that isotope remaining at the end of 9 days will be? 18 days? 1g ½ g ¼ g 4.5 9.0 13.5 days Radioisotope Half-lives 11
Chemistry Link to the Environment: Dating Objects Radiological dating is a technique used by geologists, archaeologists, and historians to determine the age of ancient objects. The age of ancient objects is determined by measuring the amount of carbon-14 present. Chemistry Link to the Environment: Dating Objects Carbon-14 is produced in the upper atmosphere by the bombardment of nitrogen-14 by highenergy neutrons from cosmic rays. Carbon-14 reacts with oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide which is absorbed by plants. 12
Chemistry Link to the Environment: Dating Objects The uptake of carbon-14 in the CO 2 stops when the plant dies. As the carbon-14 decays, the amount of radioactive carbon decreases. In a process called carbon dating, scientists use the half-life of carbon-14 (5730 yr) to calculate the length of time since the plant died. Dating Using Half-Lives The age of a bone sample from a skeleton can be determined by carbon dating. The bones assimilate carbon until death. The number of half-lives of carbon-14 from a bone sample determines the age of the bone. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 yr. A bone sample has 25% of the activity of C-14 found in a living animal. How many years ago did the prehistoric animal die? 13
Dating Using Half-Lives A bone sample has 25% of the activity of C-14 found in a living animal. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 yr. How old is this sample? State the given and needed quantities. Write a plan to calculate the unknown quantity. Radioactive Waste A sample of plutonium-239 waste from a nuclear reactor has an activity of 20,000 counts/m. How many years will it take for the activity to decrease to 625 counts/m? The half-live for Pu-239 is 24,000 years. It takes five half-lives for the activity to drop to 625 counts/min. 24,000 y 5 t ½ x = 120,000 y 1 t ½ 14
Half-Life Calculation Iodine-131 is used to measure the activity of the thyroid gland. If 88 mg of I-131 are ingested, how much remains after 24 days (t ½ = 8 days)? First, find out how many half-lives have passed. 1 t 24 days ½ x = 3t 8 days ½ Next, calculate how much I-131 is left. 1 1 1 88 mg I-131 x x x = 11 mg I-131 2 2 2 15