Arkansas Science Curriculum Framework, Strand 1-Physical Systems (Grades 9-12) CONTENT STANDARD 1 Students will demonstrate an understanding of physical systems as a process of inquiry. PS.1.1. PS.1.2. Understand that science is a process based on the scientific method which leads to a deeper understanding of real world situations. Follow procedures for a scientific inquiry using step-by-step instructions, mathematical formulas, flow diagrams, and/or sketches. SE/TE: What is Chemistry?, 3-6; The Scientific Method, 7-13 TE: 2a-2d TR/TECH: 1-1, 1-2 SE/TE: The Scientific Method, 7-13; Laboratory Investigation, 48, 80, 120, 154, 186, 214, 250, 274, 298, 340, 374, 404, 450, 490, 530, 556, 582, 620, 644, 678, 710, 744, 766, 800, 832, 862, 892; ChemActivity, 10, 74, 100, 143, 153, 162, 197, 248, 264, 288, 366, 737, 797; ChemExploration, 12, 36, 70, 71, 280, 296, 335, 389, 418, 459, 510, 526, 552, 572, 598, 633, 675, 688, 732, 760, 877; Performance-Based Task, 87, 221, 307, 413, 497, 591, 653, 717, 773, 899; see also Sample Problems throughout TE: Activity Features, T16; Laboratory Skills Assessment, T31- T32; see also Teacher Demos and Activities throughout TR/TECH: 1-1 LM: Labs throughout 1
PS.1.3. PS.1.4. PS.1.5. Develop and implement a workable scientific inquiry independently and with a group using standard safety procedures. Evaluate the process that scientists use to construct and validate scientific theory, such as data collection, prediction, experimentation (controls and variables), bias elimination, and replication. Make objective observations and perform error analysis on collected data. SE/TE: The Scientific Method, 7-13; Safety in the Laboratory, 14-15; Designing an Experiment, 186, 340, 450, 490, 530, 710, 892; Designing Experiments in Chapter Reviews; Laboratory Safety Rules, 932-933 TE: Laboratory Safety Information, T27-T30; 2a-2d; see also Teacher Demos and Activities throughout TR/TECH: 1-2; 1-3 LM: Safety, vii-xii; Labs throughout SE/TE: The Scientific Method, 7-13; Interpreting Data in Chapter Reviews; see also Laboratory Investigations, ChemActivities, ChemExplorations, Performance-Based Tasks (PS.1.2. above) TE: Activity Features, T16; Laboratory Skills Assessment, T31- T32; see also Teacher Demos and Activities throughout TR/TECH: 1-1 LM: Labs throughout SE/TE: Units of Measurement, 17-21; Uncertainty in Measurement, 22-24; Working with Numbers, 25-37; Problem Solving, 38-47; Accuracy of Measurements, 48; Interpreting Data in Chapter Reviews; see also Laboratory Investigations, ChemActivities, ChemExplorations, Performance-Based Tasks (PS.1.2. above) TE: Activity Features, T16; Laboratory Skills Assessment, T31- T32; see also Teacher Demos and Activities throughout TR/TECH: 1-4, 1-5, 1-6, 1-7 LM: Uncertainty and Measurement, 1-9; and Labs throughout 2
PS.1.6. Formulate valid conclusions. SE/TE: Problem Solving Chemistry at Work, 37, 72, 116, 134, 185, 203, 243, 273, 297, 322, 373, 400, 430, 489, 504, 553, 581, 615, 643, 669, 700, 743, 759, 783, 818, 843, 884; Critical Thinking in Section and Chapter Reviews; see also Laboratory Investigations, ChemActivities, ChemExplorations, Performance-Based Tasks (PS.1.2. above) LM: Critical Thinking: Conclusions and Analysis in Labs throughout PS.1.7. Communicate and defend in writing a scientific argument. SE/TE: Tying It Together and Using the Writing Process in Chapter Reviews; see also Laboratory Investigations, ChemActivities, ChemExplorations, Performance-Based Tasks (PS.1.2. above) LM: Critical Thinking: Conclusions and Analysis in Labs throughout PS.1.8. Critique and interpret scientific data on charts and graphs. SE/TE: Units of Measurement, 17-21; Uncertainty in Measurement, 22-24; Working with Numbers, 25-37; Problem Solving, 38-47; Accuracy of Measurements, 48; Interpreting Data in Chapter Reviews; Problem Solving Chemistry at Work, 37, 72, 116, 134, 185, 203, 243, 273, 297, 322, 373, 400, 430, 489, 504, 553, 581, 615, 643, 669, 700, 743, 759, 783, 818, 843, 884; see also Laboratory Investigations and Performance-Based Tasks (PS.1.2. above) TE: Activity Features, T16; Laboratory Skills Assessment, T31- T32; see also Teacher Demos and Activities throughout TR/TECH: 1-4, 1-5, 1-6, 1-7 LM: Uncertainty and Measurement, 1-9; and Labs throughout 3
PS.1.9. PS.1.10. Recognize that theories are models and may be revised when new data is introduced. Understand the criteria for the formation of scientific theory and a scientific law. SE/TE: (selected examples) Laws and Theories, 12-13; Early Models of the Atom, 91-94; Discovering Atomic Structure, 95-102; Radiant Energy, 125-129; Modern Atomic Theory, 103-111; Quantum Theory, 130-134; Another Look at the Atom, 135-140; A New Approach to the Atom, 141-146; Development of the Periodic Table, 159-163 TE: 2a-2d, 90a-90d, 124a-124d; see also Teaching Support: Historical Notes throughout TR/TECH: 1-2, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, 4-4 SE/TE: Laws and Theories, 12-13 TE: 2a-2d TRP: 1.2 CONTENT STANDARD 2 Students will explore, demonstrate, communicate, apply, and evaluate the knowledge of physical systems. PS.2.1. Evaluate the historical and multi-cultural contributions to the scientific body of knowledge in physical systems (nature of light, falling objects, expanding universe, model of the atom, quantum physics, periodic table). Construct time lines. SE/TE: Early Models of the Atom, 91-94; Discovering Atomic Structure, 95-102; Modern Atomic Theory, 103-111; Radiant Energy, 125-129; Quantum Theory, 130-134; Another Look at the Atom, 135-140; A New Approach to the Atom, 141-146; Development of the Periodic Table, 159-163 TE: 90a-90d, 124a-124d; see also Teaching Support: Historical Notes and Multicultural Strategies throughout TR/TECH: 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, 4-4 4
PS.2.2. PS.2.3. PS.2.4. Classify matter, into elements, compounds, andmixtures. Classify mixtures as heterogeneous or homogeneous and separate mixtures into pure substances using procedures such as distillation or chromatography. Explore various physical and chemical properties of matter, such as density, specific heat, viscosity, buoyancy, and reactivity. Distinguish between physical and chemical changes that affect everyday life, such as hot and cold packs, light sticks, rusting, fireworks display, and water displacement. SE/TE: Elements and Compounds, 74-76; Mixtures, 77-79 TE: 54a-54d TR/TECH: 2-4, 2-5 LM: Lab 6 SE/TE: Matter, 65-73; Groups of Elements, 190, 191-196, 197-201, 202-203, 204-212, 213; Chemical Reactivity, 214; How Gases Work 446-449; Properties of Liquids, 467-470; The Nature of Solids, 471-478 TE: 54a-54d, 190a-190d, 416a-416d, 456a-456d TR/TECH: 2-3, 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, 6-5, 13-5, 14-2, 14-3 LM: Labs 16, 17, 18, 39, 40 SE/TE: Matter, 65-73; The Nature of Chemical Reactions, 279-281; Classifying Chemical Reactions, 291-297; Chemical Reactions That Involve Heat, 381-383; Changes of State, 479-489; Oxidation-Reduction Reactions, 657-665; Applications of Redox Reactions, 670-673; see also Chemistry in Action (You and Your World, Consumer Tips) throughout TE: 54a-54d, 278a-d, 380a-d, 456a-456d, 656a-656d TR/TECH: 2-3, 9-1, 9-3, 12-1, 14-4, 20-1, 20-3 LM: Labs 27, 41, 42, 58, 59 5
PS.2.5. Use models to show the structure and behavior of matter (includes Rutherford s Gold Foil Experiment, sub-atomic particles, electron energy levels, quantum theory, andorganic molecules). SE/TE: Atomic Structure, 90, 91-94, 95-102, 103-111, 112-119; Electron Configurations, 124, 125-129, 130-134, 135-140, 141-146, 147-153; Groups of Elements, 190, 191-196, 197-201, 202-203, 204-212, 213; Carbon and Its Compounds, 804, 805-809, 810-812, 813-815, 816-826, 827-831; Classes of Organic Compounds, 836, 837-848, 849-851, 852-857, 858-862; The Chemistry of Life, 866, 867-870, 871-877, 878-880, 881-887, 888-891 TE: 90a-90d, 124a-124d, 190a-190d, 804a-804d, 836a-836d, 866a- 866d TR/TECH: 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, 6-5, 25-1, 25-2, 25-3, 25-4, 25-5, 26-1, 26-2, 26-3, 26-4, 27-1, 27-2, 27-3, 27-4, 27-5 LM: Labs 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80 PS.2.6. Understand the rationale of the periodic chart. SE/TE: The Periodic Table, 158, 159-163, 164-173, 174-185 TE: 158a-158d TR/TECH: 5-1, 5-2, 5-3 LM: 13, 14, 15 PS.2.7. Explain the relationship among mole, chemical bonding, and molecular geometry within chemical compounds. SE/TE: Chemical Formulas and Bonding, 224, 225-235, 236-243, 244-249; Molecular Shape, 254, 255-265, 266-273; The Mole, 310, 311-322, 323-331, 332-339 TE: 224a-224d, 254a-254d, 310a-310d TR/TECH: 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 8-1, 8-2, 10-1, 10-2, 10-3 LM: Labs 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 30 6
PS.2.8. PS.2.9. Demonstrate the relationships between kinetic theory and the states of matter (gas laws). Understand the representation of and energetics of chemical reactions (equation writing, types of reactions, stoichiometry, reaction rates, equilibria, andelectrochemistry). SE/TE: Gases, 416, 417-423, 424-430, 431-440, 441-445, 446-449; Liquids and Solids, 456, 457-466, 467-470, 471-478, 479-489 TE: 416a-416d, 456a-456d TR/TECH: 13-1, 13-2, 13-3, 13-4, 13-5, 14-1, 14-2, 14-3, 14-4 LM: Labs 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42 SE/TE: Chemical Equations and Reactions, 279, 282-290, 291-297; The Mathematics of Chemical Equations, 346, 347-353, 354-364, 365-373; Heat in Chemical Reactions, 380, 381-383, 384-387, 388-392, 393-400, 401-403; Chemical Equilibrium, 534, 535-540, 541-547, 548-555; Oxidation and Reduction, 656, 657-665, 666-669, 670-673, 674-677; Electrochemistry, 682, 683-685, 686-696, 697-704, 705-709; Rates of Reaction, 720, 721-731, 732-737, 738-743; Thermodynamics, 748, 749-752, 753-755, 756-760, 761-765 TE: 279a-279d, 346a-346d, 380a-380d, 534a-534d, 656a-656d, 682a-682d, 720a-720d, 748a-748d TR/TECH: 9-1, 9-2, 9-3, 11-1, 11-2, 11-3, 12-1, 12-2, 12-3, 12-4, 12-5, 16-1, 16-2, 16-3, 20-1, 20-2, 20-3, 20-4, 21-2, 21-2, 21-3, 21-4, 22-1, 22-2, 22-3, 23-1, 23-2, 23-3, 23-4 LM: Labs 25, 26, 27, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 46, 47, 48, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69 7
PS.2.10. PS.2.11. PS.2.12. PS.2.13. PS.2.14. Understand the nature of solutions (solubility, concentrations, ph, acids/bases, colligative properties, andbuffer solutions). Define the four fundamental forces in nature (gravitational, electromagnetic, weak nuclear and strong nuclear). Analyze the aspects of motion (frame of reference, speed, velocity, acceleration, relativity, time and displacement), and distinguish between average, constant, and instantaneous motion. (Demonstrate and evaluate motion graphically.) Investigate the aspects of two-dimensional motion (circular, rotational and projectile), momentum and impulse. Apply the laws of conservation to interactions of matter (momentum, angular momentum, mass/energy, and electric charge). SE/TE: Solutions, 500, 501-505, 506-511, 512-519, 520-529; Solubility and Precipitation, 560, 561-570, 571-579, 580-581; Acids, Bases, and Salts, 594, 595-604, 605-615, 616-619; Reactions of Acids and Bases, 624, 625-633, 634-635, 636-643 TE: 500a-500d, 560a-560d, 594a-594d, 624a-624d TR/TECH: 15-1, 15-2, 15-3, 15-4, 17-1, 17-2, 17-3, 18-1, 18-2, 18-3, 19-1, 19-2, 19-3 LM: 43, 44, 45, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) 95, 112, 125, 683, 792 SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) 130, 141, 417, 457, 721, 777 SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) 130, 141, 147, 417, 457, 721, 777 SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) 55-60, 147, 282, 384, 674, 753, 756 8
PS.2.15. Explain the relationship of matter and energy (E = mc 2 ). SE/TE: Harnessing the Nucleus, 792-799 TE: 776a-776d TR/TECH: 24-3 PS.2.16. PS.2.17. PS.2.18. PS.2.19. PS.2.20. Recognize the relationships of forces and motion, applying Newton s laws, and use diagram to analyze the forces on a system. Examine the types of waves (transverse, longitudinal, standing, circular, electromagnetic), properties and characteristics of waves (reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference, pitch, frequency, and velocity), and how waves transfer energy. Investigate the properties and characteristics of light and different optical systems (lenses, mirrors, polarization filters, fiber optics, and lasers). Evaluate the concept of the duality of light exploring contributions of scientists such as debroglie, Schrodinger, and Heisenberg. Investigate the electromagnetic spectrum and the derivation of emission and absorption spectra. SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) 130, 141, 147, 417, 457, 721, 777 SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) Radiant Energy, 125-129; Quantum Theory, 130-134; Another Look at the Atom, 135-140 TE: 124a-124d TR/TECH: 4-1, 4-2, 4-3; LM: 10, 11 SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) Radiant Energy, 125-129 TE: 124a-124d TR/TECH: 4-1 SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) Radiant Energy, 125-129; Quantum Theory, 130-134; Another Look at the Atom, 135-140 TE: 124a-124d TR/TECH: 4-1, 4-2, 4-3; LM: 10, 11 SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) Radiant Energy, 125-129 TE: 124a-124d TR/TECH: 4-1 9
PS.2.21. PS.2.22. Examine the properties of sound (pitch, frequency, and intensity) and other related aspects (earthquakes, shock waves, SONAR). Investigate electric and magnetic interactions and fields (poles, magnetic domains, charges, field lines, potential difference, force and Coulomb s Law). SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) 55, 125 SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) 103, 266, 683-685, 686-696, 697-704, 705-713 PS.2.23. Distinguish between direct and alternating current. SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) 683, 686, 697, 705 PS.2.24. PS.2.25. Analyze and evaluate the parameters of circuits applying Ohm s Law and use appropriate data collections and calculations (current, resistance, and voltage). Analyze the interdependent field of electricity and magnetism (electromagnets, motors, generators, and transformers). SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) 683-685, 686-696, 697-704, 705-713 TE: 682-682 TR/TECH: 21-1, 21-2, 21-3, 21-4; LM: 62, 63 SE/TE: (related topics in chemistry) 683, 686, 697, 705 10
CONTENT STANDARD 3 Students will demonstrate an understanding of the connections and applications of physical science. PS.3.1. PS.3.2. PS.3.3. Analyze the role science plays in everyday life and compare different careers in the physical sciences. Evaluate long range plans for resource use and by-product disposal in terms of environmental, economic, and political impact. Assess current world issues applying scientific themes (suggested issues: global changes in climate, ozone depletion, UV radiation, natural resources, use of technology, and public policy). SE/TE: You and Your World, 14, 33, 56, 62, 114, 132, 140, 181, 208, 210, 226, 232, 245, 257, 283, 321, 364, 402, 433, 464, 516, 551, 554, 565, 630, 660, 662, 664, 677, 685, 690, 707, 739, 751, 765, 785, 828, 839, 879, 891; Consumer Tips, 34, 58, 146, 151, 173, 195, 211, 260, 284, 333, 353, 387, 390, 396, 425, 443, 484, 507, 509, 546, 567, 614, 627, 699, 705, 742, 754, 762, 780, 815, 851, 882; From School to Work, 84, 218, 304, 410, 494, 588, 650, 714, 770, 896 TE: see Science and Cross-Curricular Integration in Unit Overviews, xx-1, 88-89, 222-223, 308-309, 414-415, 498-499, 592-593, 654-655, 718-719, 774-775 SE/TE: Connections Science, Technology, and Society, 6, 64, 118, 150, 172, 201, 235, 269, 290, 325, 363, 403, 448, 477, 528, 539, 568, 604, 631, 673, 702, 729, 764, 791, 823, 857, 889 TE: see Science and Cross-Curricular Integration in Unit Overviews, xx-1, 88-89, 222-223, 308-309, 414-415, 498-499, 592-593, 654-655, 718-719, 774-775 SE/TE: Connections Science, Technology, and Society, 6, 64, 118, 150, 172, 201, 235, 269, 290, 325, 363, 403, 448, 477, 528, 539, 568, 604, 631, 673, 702, 729, 764, 791, 823, 857, 889 TE: see Science and Cross-Curricular Integration in Unit Overviews, xx-1, 88-89, 222-223, 308-309, 414-415, 498-499, 592-593, 654-655, 718-719, 774-775 11
PS.3.4. PS.3.5. Understand that mathematics is the precise language of communication and problem solving in science (conversions, logarithms, inverse square law, etc.). (Measure and calculate in SI units.) Apply technology as appropriate tools for solving problems (electronic balances, computers, ph meters, spectrophotometers, multimeters, etc.) SE/TE: Math Tool Kit, 16; Measurement, 17-21, 22-24, 48; Working with Numbers, 25-37; Problem Solving, 38-47; Problem Solving Chemistry at Work, 37, 72, 116, 134, 185, 203, 243, 273, 297, 322, 373, 400, 430, 489, 504, 553, 581, 615, 643, 669, 700, 743, 759, 783, 818, 843, 884; Units in Chemistry, 936-937; Mathematics Refresher, 938-940, 941; see Problems and Math Tips throughout; see also Laboratory Investigations, ChemActivities, ChemExplorations, Performance-Based Tasks (PS.1.2. above) TE: Activity Features, T16; Laboratory Skills Assessment, T31- T32; see also Teacher Demos and Activities throughout TR/TECH: 1-4, 1-5, 1-6, 1-7 LM: Uncertainty and Measurement, 1-9; and Labs throughout SE/TE: Measurement, 17-21, 22-24, 48; Laboratory Balances, 934-935; see also Laboratory Investigations, ChemActivities, ChemExplorations, Performance-Based Tasks (PS.1.2. above) TE: Laboratory Materials and Equipment, T33-T37; see also Teacher Demos and Activities throughout TR/TECH: 1-4, 1-5 LM: Common Laboratory Equipment, xiv-xviii, and Labs throughout 12
PS.3.6. Assess the connections between pure science and applied science to the world of work by performing labs and activities common to the physical sciences. SE/TE: The Scientific Method, 7-13; Laboratory Investigation, 48, 80, 120, 154, 186, 214, 250, 274, 298, 340, 374, 404, 450, 490, 530, 556, 582, 620, 644, 678, 710, 744, 766, 800, 832, 862, 892; ChemActivity, 10, 74, 100, 143, 153, 162, 197, 248, 264, 288, 366, 737, 797; ChemExploration, 12, 36, 70, 71, 280, 296, 335, 389, 418, 459, 510, 526, 552, 572, 598, 633, 675, 688, 732, 760, 877; Performance-Based Task, 87, 221, 307, 413, 497, 591, 653, 717, 773, 899; see also Sample Problems throughout TE: Activity Features, T16; Laboratory Skills Assessment, T31- T32; see also Science and Cross-Curricular Integration in Unit Overviews, xx-1, 88-89, 222-223, 308-309, 414-415, 498-499, 592-593, 654-655, 718-719, 774-775 TR/TECH: 1-1 LM: Labs throughout 13
PS.3.7. Understand broad themes of Project 2061. Such themes include systems, patterns of change, interactions, energy equilibrium, models, and scale (e.g., relative dimensions such as solar system size). (See http://www.project2061.org/) SE/TE: TE: Broad themes are incorporated as underlying threads throughout: Energy, 55, 74, 125, 381, 388, 417, 446, 457, 467, 479, 683, 686, 697, 732, 753, 761, 867; Stability, 22, 25, 112, 225, 279, 323, 506, 520, 571, 625, 634, 636, 674, 749, 777, 792; Patterns of Change, 17, 38, 65, 174, 291, 384, 424, 431, 441, 479, 571, 657, 705, 756, 761; Systems and Interactions, 17, 393, 512, 535, 541, 548, 625, 786, 827, 888; Unity and Diversity, 3, 55, 74, 164, 191, 204, 225, 424, 457, 467, 471, 501, 580, 670, 810, 816, 849, 852, 858, 871, 878; Scale and Structure, 61, 103, 141, 236, 332, 347, 721, 738; Form and Function, 16, 25, 77, 135, 197, 202, 213, 266, 311, 354, 365, 441, 595, 605, 805, 881, 888; Models and Organization, 7, 95, 130, 147, 159, 244, 255, 266, 401, 417, 616, 657, 666, 813, 837, 881; Evolution and Adaptation, 7, 91, 95 Thematic Overview, T19-T24; Chapter Overview Thematic Focus, 2c-d, 54c-d, 90c-d, 124c-d, 158c-d, 190c-d, 224c-d, 254c-d, 278c-d, 310c-d, 346c-d, 380c-d, 416c-d, 456c-d, 500cd, 534c-d, 560c-d, 594c-d, 624c-d, 656c-d, 682c-d, 720c-d, 748c-d, 776c-d, 804c-d, 836c-d, 866c-d 14
PS.3.7. (Continued) Understand broad themes of Project 2061. Such themes include systems, patterns of change, interactions, energy equilibrium, models, and scale (e.g., relative dimensions such as solar system size). (See http://www.project2061.org/) TR/TECH: Energy, 2-1, 2-3, 4-1, 12-1, 12-3, 13-1, 13-5, 14-1, 14-2, 14-4, 21-1, 21-2, 21-3, 22-2, 23-2, 23-4, 27-1; Stability, 1-5, 1-6, 3-4, 7-1, 9-1, 10-2, 15-2, 15-4, 17-2, 19-1, 19-2, 19-3, 20-4, 23-1, 24-1, 24-3; Patterns of Change, 1-4, 1-7, 2-3, 5-3, 9-3, 12-2, 13-2, 13-3, 13-4, 14-4, 17-2, 20-1, 21-4, 23-3, 23-4; Systems and Interactions, 1-4, 12-4, 15-3, 16-1, 16-2, 16-3, 19-1, 24-2, 25-5,27-5;UnityandDiversity,1-1,2-1,2-4,5-2,6-1,6-4,7-1, 13-2, 14-1, 14-2, 14-3, 15-1, 17-3, 20-3, 25-2, 25-4, 26-2, 26-3, 26-4, 27-2, 27-3; Scale and Structure, 2-2, 3-3, 4-4, 7-2, 10-3, 11-1, 22-1, 22-3; Form and Function, 1-3, 1-6, 2-5, 4-3, 6-2, 6-3, 6-5, 8-2, 10-1, 11-2, 11-3, 13-4, 18-1, 18-2, 25-1, 27-4, 27-5; Models and Organization, 1-2, 3-2, 4-2, 4-5, 5-1, 7-3, 8-1, 8-2, 12-5, 13-1, 18-3, 20-1, 20-2, 25-3, 26-1, 27-4; Evolution and Adaptation, 1-2, 3-1, 3-2 15