Investigation, Conceptualization and Abstraction in Geographic Information Science: Some Methodological Parallels with Human Geography Gregory Elmes Department of Geology and Geography West Virginia University
Introduction and Theme Origins GIS and Society Reciprocal engagement of science and technology with society Geographic Information Science and Society Contested intellectual ground Methods of Representation and Analysis Geography as science Geography as critical social theory Theoretical and Epistemological Differences Methodological Parallels Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 2
Origins From Teaching Geog 602 - Geographic Research Design Geog 651 - Technical Issues in GIS From Conferences AAG 1996 / 2000 COSIT 1997/99 GISOC 1999 GISc 2000 From inherent approach to life, work and geography A lumper not a splitter Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 3
GIS and Society Geographic Information Systems Georepresentation is key Software view of the world Increasingly technologically driven Role of commercial developers in setting what can and is done with GIS Society cluster of socially constructed institutions, relationships, and forms of conduct that are reproduced and reconstructed across time and space, and the conditions under which such phenomena are formed. (Johnson, Gregory and Smith 1994). Academic community Geographic community Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 4
Geographic Information Science and Society Understanding, Explanation, Prediction From GIS to GIScience Growth, Innovation, Incorporation, Integration,Transformation Goodchild (1992); CAGIS (1995); UCGIS (1995); Annals (2000) Sharpening of the dialectic? Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 5
Progress of Geographic Understanding As positivist science As critical social theory or any one of half a dozen isms Dialectic of Science (Brown 1999, p.2) Thesis and Antithesis Scientific measurement and analytical approaches Hermeneutics / Realism / social theory Synthesis Continuity and Change Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 6
The Fabric of Reality Other relevant discourse Four main strands of scientific explanation (David Deutsch) : quantum theory evolution- DNA computation, theory of knowledge (INFORMATION). SCALE - Subatomic Multiverse Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 7
Physics - subatomic Computation- Quantum/DNA/ Etc Biology DNA/Gene Computation Multiversal Knowledge / Physics - Information Multiverse Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 8
Society as mesoscale computer =42 Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 9
RESEARCH TENSION CHANGE Thesis GI GI Science Antithesis Critical Theory Synthesis Integrated Epistemology CONTINUITY After Brown, 1999, p.2
Philosophical Foundations Common to Social Theory and GISc. Ontology What objects exist in the world? What statements about these objects are true? Epistemology How do we obtain knowledge of truths about the world? How do we assess the reliability of that knowledge? Methodology Means by which knowledge is obtained and tested for reliability Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 11
Sociology of Science Individual Ethics What types of research ought a scientist undertake? Social Ethics What types of science ought society to encourage, subsidize, or publicly fund or alternatively discourage, tax, or forbid. Sokal and Bricmont, Fashionable Nonsense 1998, p 272 Sociology of Knowledge To what extent are truths (or falsehoods) known (or knowable) by any given society influenced by social, economic, political, cultural and ideological factors? The strong program - relativism Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 12
Theoretical and Epistemological Differences - Overplayed? Played Out? Geographical Understanding Explanation Prediction Description Observation Legitimate variety of research ends and means Continuity in Change (Brown 1999, p. 19) Positivism - inevitably part of the way we argue and proceed Balance between theorizing and empirical observation Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 13
Parallel Methodologies Realism Building a Conceptual Framework for Research Problem Relations Data Modeling Software Engineering Entity-Relation Model (Chen) Object-Orientated Model (Booch) Relationships Spatial Data Models Georepresentation Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 14
Realism A philosophy - based on the use of abstraction to identify the (necessary) causal powers and liabilities of specific structures which are realized under specific (contingent) conditions (Johnston et. Al. 1994, p.499) One of principal bases of social theory An external reality exists to be discovered Realism employs the dual search for causal mechanisms and empirical regularities through the tools of intensive and extensive research RELATIONS Focus on Substantial Relations of Connection Necessary and Contingent relations Building conceptual frameworks Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 15
Abstraction Identifies the essential characteristics of objects and is concerned with the substantial relations of connection Internal (necessary) relations / External (contingent) relations Identified during abstraction process Levels of abstraction hierarchy, stratified, differentiated Events, Mechanisms, Structures Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 16
Data Modeling Entity-Relational Modeling (Chen 1976) Object-Oriented Modeling (Booch 1994) Abstraction plays critical role in data modeling Reading and interpretation of objects and their relationship one to another Enterprise rules Sets of procedures governing information production and flow Iterative deconstruction of verbal interviews, texts, etc. Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 17
Entity-Relational Modeling Conceptual design stage Parsing of qualitative information Ever deepening descriptions of the problem Iterative Active participant observation Nouns - entities (Features, objects) Verbs - relations Normal forms - process similar to establishing whether relations are necessary or contingent. Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 18
Entity-Relational Modeling -2 Minimal Urban Land Use Exercise Municipal Government Tracking Land Transactions Issuing Building Permits Enforcing Zoning Regulations, etc. Build Relational Database represents a specific case generalizable Binary relations Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 19
Entity-Relation Data Modeling Is owned by Parcel 1 n Owner Owns Individuals Buys from Sells to Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 20
A Database Design Process Nouns Entities Parse enterprise rules Verbs Relations Initial design Adjectives Attributes Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 21
A Database Design Process 2 Initial Design Nouns Entities Revisit/ revise enterprise rules Verbs Relations Revised Design Adjectives Attributes Iterative Abstraction Process Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 22
Object-Oriented Modeling Derived for situations of inescapably complex systems, which may have completing and contradictory relationships and interactions. (Booch 1994) Predicated on identification of objects Properties (attributes, states) Methods (behaviors, actions) System / World modeled through decomposition, abstraction and hierarchy Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 23
Object-Oriented Data Modeling Abstraction Encapsulation Modularity Hierarchy Abstraction Fundamental way to deal with complexity Recognition of similarities between certain objects, situations, or processes in reality Decision to concentrate on similarities Ignore differences, for the time being (Dahl et. al 1972) Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 24
Object relations Association Classes Doc Is Viewed Through Displays DocWin (Class) Object Instance (Doc) mydoc Is Viewed Through (DocWin) Displays mydocwin Link Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 25
Reductionism and emergent properties... Role of SCALE
Modularity Encapsulation From Booch, 1997 Cpt 2.
Intensive and Extensive Research (After Sayer 1992) INTENSIVE How does process work in a particular case? Substantial relations Causal Explanation of production of certain objects or events Individual agents in causal contexts Causal powers of objects are generalizable to other contexts UNDERSTANDING EXTENSIVE What are the regularities, common patterns, distinguishing features? Formal relations Descriptive explanatory generalizations Large scale survey / sampling Representative of whole populations, limited generalizabililty EXPLANATION Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 29
Data Source Continuum (after Brown 1999 Fig 6) Surveys, place inventories, mapping Key informant interview Focus groups Participant observation Field reconnaissance Personal experience... Most Formal More Formal Formal Somewhat Formal Least Formal Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 30
CHANGE RESEARCH TENSION Thesis: GI GI Science Antithesis: Critical Social Theory Synthesis: Integrated Epistemology CONTINUITY After Brown L., 1999, p.2
Synthesis Essentially a Kuhnian conceptualization of the progress of understanding Structure of scientific revolutions, 1972 Tension exists because practitioners are believed not to be able to hold more than one paradigm at a time Demonstrably untrue in geographic sciences Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 32
MULTIPLE PATHS OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS GI GI GI Science GI GI Science GI GI Science GI GI Science GI GI Science GI GI Science GI Science Critical Critical Theory Critical Theory Critical Theory Critical Theory Critical Theory Critical Theory Theory MULTIVERSE? Synthesis Synthesis Integrated Synthesis Integrated Epistemology Synthesis Integrated Epistemology Synthesis Integrated Epistemology Synthesis Integrated Epistemology Synthesis Integrated Epistemology Integrated Epistemology Epistemology
Synthesis - partial, incomplete, in progress Abstraction is a fundamental method in both critical social theory and GIScience Similar methods - different ends Denotes essential characteristics of an object relative to the perspective of the viewer (Booch 1994, p 41) Viewer can become the viewed - double hermeneutic Captures essential behavior of an object Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 34
Towards Synthesis Recognition of fundamental similarities of approach Further investigation of encapsulation, hierarchy within social theory method A role for modularity? Local context? Evident need for continued, rigorous dialog between the two cultures Formalization - many ideas presented at GIS2000 and COSIT conferences Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 35
Towards Synthesis of Method Recognition of fundamental similarities of approach Further investigation of encapsulation, hierarchy A role for modularity? Local context? Scale - a route beyond the ecological fallacy? Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 36
THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF CAT
END Copyright: 2003 Gregory Elmes Do not use in any form without written permission from the author 38