New Jersey NJ ASK. 8 Science

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1 New Jersey NJ ASK 8 Science

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction... 1 Tips for Taking Science Tests... 1 Unit 1 Scientific Processes... 3 Review 1: Science, Society, and Technology... 4 New Jersey CCCS: A.1 3, B.1 2, A B, A.1, B.1 Review 2: Scientific Investigations New Jersey CCCS: A.1 4, B.1 2, C.1 2 Review 3: Representing and Interpreting Data New Jersey CCCS: A.1, B.1 3, A.1, B.1, C.1, D.1 3 Unit 2 Life Science Review 4: Structure, Function, and Development in Organisms New Jersey CCCS: A.1, B.1, A.1 2, C.1, A.2 Review 5: Reproduction and Heredity New Jersey CCCS: A.1, D.1, B.2, C.1 Review 6: Matter and Energy in Ecosystems New Jersey CCCS: A.1, A.1 2, B.1 2, A.1, B.1 Review 7: Evolution and Diversity New Jersey CCCS: B.1, B.1 3, C.1 Unit 3 Physical Science Review 8: Physical Properties of Matter New Jersey CCCS: A.1, B.1, C.1, A.2 4, A.2 Review 9: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures New Jersey CCCS: A.1 & 3, B.1, A.1 & 3 4, B.1 4 Review 10: Force and Motion New Jersey CCCS: B.1, D.1, A.1 3, A.1 2 Review 11: Energy and Its Transformations New Jersey CCCS: B.1 3, B.1 4, B.1 iii

3 Table of Contents Unit 4 Earth Science and Astronomy Review 12: The Rock Cycle and the Earth s History New Jersey CCCS: A.1, C.1, A.1, C.2, B.1 Review 13: The Water Cycle and Weather New Jersey CCCS: B1 2, B.1 Review 14: Forces That Shape the Earth s Surface New Jersey CCCS: B.1, D.1, C.1, D.1 2 Review 15: The Solar System s Place in the Universe New Jersey CCCS: A.1 2, B.1 2, C.1 2, D.1, A.1 3, B.1, C.1, D.1 Glossary To the Teacher: New Jersey CCCS codes are listed for each review in the table of contents and for each page in the shaded gray bars that run across the tops of the pages in the workbook (see example to the right). These codes indicate which New Jersey Content Core Curriculum Standards are covered in a given review or on a given page. iv

4 Unit 1 Scientific Processes New Jersey CCCS: A.1 3, B.1 2 Review 1 Science, Society, and Technology You can learn a lot about a scientific concept by knowing where its word came from. Take the word cosmos, for example. Today it means universe, but it came from an ancient Greek word meaning order. The ancient meaning of cosmos expressed the Greek s belief that the natural world was orderly and predictable. How about science itself? Today, the word refers to areas like biology or astronomy, but it comes from a Latin word meaning knowledge. The practice of science looking for patterns in the natural world and making predictions from those patterns is as old as human life on this planet. So, modern science owes much to the thinkers of the ancient world. But the connections between ancient and modern science are not simple. Much of what we call science today was made possible only by overturning some old ideas ideas that ancient thinkers considered facts. This review will cover some of the major figures and advancements in the history of science and technology. It will also briefly explore some relationships between science, society, and technology. Natural Philosophers of the Ancient World All human civilizations have observed and predicted events in the natural world. Ancient societies usually felt that supernatural powers caused occurrences such as the Sun rising, the seasons changing, and human illness. But the civilization of ancient Greece (600 to 200 B.C.) produced thinkers who argued that natural forces, not gods or spirits, caused such events. Such thinkers held that these material forces could be found by observation and understood by reason. These thinkers were called natural philosophers, but today we would call them scientists. For centuries, people who studied nature were called natural philosophers. In the midnineteenth century, the word scientist was invented for such people. Suggest why the name changed when it did. Words to Know deductive reasoning description explanation inductive reasoning inference observation risk-benefit analysis science society technology 4

5 New Jersey CCCS: A.1 3, B.1 2 Review 1: Science, Society, and Technology Ancient Greece and Rome produced many famous natural philosophers, but three were especially important to the development of Western science. Aristotle (Greek, B.C.): Aristotle is best known for his ideas on the origin of the universe, the motion of objects, and the classification of plants and animals. For nearly 2,000 years, most natural philosophers considered themselves followers of Aristotle. Ptolemy (Roman, A.D ): Ptolemy is best known for writing the Almagest, a book that summed up the thinking of his day about the structure of the universe. The Almagest described a universe in which Earth was at the center and was circled by the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars. This is called the geocentric (geo- 5 Earth and centric 5 centered) model of the universe. Galen (Greek, practiced in Rome, A.D ): Galen was a doctor who wrote about the human body and its ailments. He dissected pigs and monkeys to study their muscles, bones, and organs. From these studies, he made many conclusions about human anatomy. Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Galen were like modern scientists in one sense: They all insisted that claims about the natural world should be based on observations. But these natural philosophers did not carry their demand for observation far enough. They often jumped to conclusions too quickly and then made explanations based on those faulty conclusions. They also practiced deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a type of thinking that starts with an assumption and then reaches conclusions based on that assumption. This type of thinking led to many incorrect conclusions about how the natural world worked. These incorrect conclusions held back the progress of Western science for centuries. Aristotle claimed that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones. How would you test this claim? By A.D. 1100, the Catholic Church had adapted the writings of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Galen to its own needs, making their works the final word on all scientific matters. As a result, natural philosophers of the Middle Ages made few observations of the natural world. Any observations that conflicted with the old teachings were considered to be wrong. But the ancient authorities were wrong, in many ways. Aristotle got a lot wrong. A few of his bigger mistakes: He assumed that change could happen only on the Earth and not in the rest of the universe. He assumed that objects on Earth moved mostly in straight lines, and that everything from the Moon to the stars moved only in circles. He assumed that insects were born from rotten meat and mud, not from other insects. Because Aristotle s assumptions were wrong, his conclusions were also wrong. 5

6 Unit 1 Scientific Processes New Jersey CCCS: A.1 3, B.1 2 Ptolemy s Almagest tried to predict the motions of the planets, but his basic assumption that the Earth was motionless and at the center of the universe was incorrect. Galen based his ideas of human anatomy on dissections of pigs and monkeys. (Human dissection was forbidden in Rome.) This led to many incorrect claims about the structure and function of the human body. Because these and other incorrect ideas were accepted as truth, the natural philosophy of the Middle Ages held many incorrect ideas about the universe, living things, and the human body. Give one example from the past few centuries in which some kind of authority has influenced scientific research or thought, either positively or negatively. The Rise of Modern Science Between 1200 and 1500, European thinkers began finding that the texts of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Galen could not explain what they were seeing. Despite what Aristotle said, objects of different weights fell at the same rates. The planets and stars did not move as Ptolemy predicted. The human body had a different anatomy than that described by Galen. Some thinkers began arguing that inductive reasoning the process of reaching conclusions based on observation and experiment could give a better picture of how the natural world worked. A few of the more important thinkers: The Italian physician Andreas Vesalius ( ) dissected human bodies, wrote down his findings, and hired artists to make accurate images of the body. The result was On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543), a book that disproved many of Galen s claims. The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe ( ) observed the paths of the planets and stars. His observations led him to reject Aristotle s idea that the heavens were perfect and unchanging. He also came to believe that the planets circled the Sun. The Italian physicist Galileo Galilei ( ) used experiments to disprove Aristotle s claims about falling and moving objects. (Sir Isaac Newton [ ] developed the science of motion even further, as you will see in Review 10.) In 1609, Galileo used a brand-new technology called a telescope to see four moons orbiting Jupiter. This proved that Earth was not the only center of motion in the universe. He wrote about his observations in a book called The Starry Messenger. Because inductive reasoning was so successful at explaining what scientists saw, scientists came to trust their own observations and experiments over the ideas of ancient authorities. Today, inductive reasoning remains the main way that science is practiced and scientific knowledge formed. 6

7 New Jersey CCCS: A.1 3, B.1 2, A B, A.1 Review 1: Science, Society, and Technology Nicholas Copernicus ( ), a Polish priest and astronomer, published On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs in The book argued that the motions of the planets could be better explained by assuming that Earth was a planet that orbited the Sun. State two reasons why most people rejected this claim. Here in the 21st century, it s easy to point out what natural philosophers such as Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Galen got wrong. Insects born from mud? An unmoving Earth? Ridiculous. But we shouldn t be too smug. The ancient Greek scientists were particularly brilliant. They developed ideas about matter, motion, and physical change that, while incorrect, were ingenious. For example, Eratosthenes (3rd century B.C.) was able to calculate the size of the Earth by using little more than shadows and simple geometry. (It s a pretty simple activity that can easily be repeated.) And the Greeks were the first people to ask the questions that are still central to science, even today: What is the nature of matter? What is the structure of the cosmos? And, How do we define life? Relating Science, Technology, and Society Let s now turn to modern science, technology, and society. It s pretty easy to confuse science with technology. Although science and technology overlap, they are different. Scientists investigate the natural world to detect its underlying patterns and learn the rules by which it works. Technologists (inventors and engineers) use the knowledge gained through scientific investigations to make products that meet the needs and the wants of a society. And what is a society? There are many definitions. Broadly speaking, a society is a group of people who share a set of political, economic, and cultural institutions. For example, the United States of America is a single society because of several shared institutions the federal government, a capitalist economy, a set of public school systems paid for by taxes, and so on. Popular culture (movies, comic books, and so on) often depicts scientists or technologists as having special roles in modern society. Describe one special role that popular culture assumes that scientists or technologists have in modern society. 7

8 Unit 1 Scientific Processes New Jersey CCCS: A B, A.1, B.1 Sometimes, science must make discoveries before technology can be developed for society. For example, the people who did the early research on electricity were scientists. They investigated electricity because they wanted to learn what electricity was and the rules by which it worked. Technologists then used this knowledge about electricity to make useful things: lightbulbs, telegraphs, refrigerators, and so on. Isaac Newton investigated gravity because he was curious about it. Name a technology that has benefited from Newton s work on gravity. Other times, it is technological development that makes new scientific knowledge possible. For example, the invention of the telescope in the early seventeenth century made it possible for Galileo to see four moons orbiting Jupiter. This was one of the first pieces of hard evidence against the theory that all objects in the universe orbit the Earth. The development of a new technology led to new knowledge about the rules by which the natural world works. The microscope was invented around the same time as the telescope. Name one scientific discovery that was not possible until the invention of the microscope. Performing a Risk-Benefit Analysis A risk-benefit analysis examines the risks and benefits that a technology might bring to individual humans, human society, and the natural environment. A risk-benefit analysis also helps scientists and technologists determine whether the possible benefits outweigh the potential risks. In your class, get into groups of three or four. For 10 minutes, pool your knowledge about the benefits and the risks to human health of one of the following technologies: air bags in passenger vehicles such as cars, vans, and trucks radiation therapy to kill cancer cells or treat tumors Come up with as many risks and as many benefits as you can, and list them on the lines on page 9. Afterward, your teacher may ask the class as a whole to discuss the risks and benefits of each technology. Write on the following line the technology your group chose to discuss. 8

9 New Jersey CCCS: B.1 Review 1: Science, Society, and Technology Risks: Benefits: Keys to Keep The history of science shows how scientific knowledge and technology have changed and advanced over time. The needs of society usually drive scientific experimentation and technological development. A risk-benefit analysis evaluates the risks and benefits of a technology to humans, society, and the natural world. 9

10 Unit 1 Scientific Processes New Jersey CCCS: A1 2 Explore It Yourself Modern scientists practice inductive reasoning. This means that they use skills such as observation, description, and inference when studying things or events. Scientists also try to produce explanations of their findings. You ll practice these same skills in this activity. Step 1: Get into groups of two to four students. Your teacher will give each group a box containing three objects. Do not open the box until your teacher says you can do so. Step 2: Each person in the group should spend 2 minutes trying to figure out what is inside the box. Try different methods of gathering information: Tilt the box, shake the box, listen for sounds, feel for shifts of weight, and so on. Step 3: On the following lines, come up with some words indicating the characteristics of each object in the box. Step 4: After all members have had a turn with the box and written down some characteristics, take 5 to 10 minutes as a group to discuss your findings. Each group should come to an agreement about what three objects are in the box. Step 5: On the following lines, state the group s conclusion about what three objects are in the box. Then, say why the group made the conclusion it did about each object. First object: Second object: Third object: Step 6: Open the box and see what objects are inside. 10

11 New Jersey CCCS: A1 2 Review 1: Science, Society, and Technology What Does It Mean? 1. How did your group s conclusions compare with the actual contents of the box? 2. People make observations with their senses. People make inferences based on their observations, limited knowledge, and past experiences. When were you making observations in this activity? When were you making inferences? 3. A description communicates the qualities of an object, a process, and so on. An explanation states why an object has certain qualities, why a process happened the way it did, and so on. When were you making descriptions in this activity? When were you making explanations? 4. Suppose that Louis, an eighth grader, has a bad stomachache. He goes to Dr. Malreaux s office to find out what is wrong. On the following lines, suggest when Dr. Malreaux might use the following skills during his examination of Louis. Observation: Inference: Description: Explanation: 11

12 Unit 1 Scientific Processes NJ ASK Practice 1. Engineers need to determine both the positive and negative effects of a new technology. What process do engineers use to determine both the positive and the negative effects? A. a warranty B. a supply-demand analysis C. a risk-benefit analysis D. a sales and marketing analysis 2. Scientists say that the Sun appears to move in the sky because the Earth is rotating on its axis. This is an example of 3. Which sentence best summarizes why scientific knowledge changes over time? A. Science must explain new observations that challenge existing theories. B. Scientists easily change their minds about natural laws. C. As natural laws change, scientific knowledge must change with them. D. Scientific knowledge is a set of opinions, and opinions change over time. A. a belief. B. an explanation. C. a prediction. D. a description. 4. Engineers perform risk-benefit analyses of technologies. Which of the following is a benefit of wind power? A. It does not emit hydrocarbons. B. It can be developed anywhere. C. It is inexpensive to develop. D. It requires that turbines be built on hills. 12

13 Review 1: NJ ASK Practice 5. Which of the following correctly matches the person with his idea? A. Aristotle heavy and light objects fall at the same rates of speed B. Ptolemy the Sun, planets, and stars revolve around the Earth C. Galileo a light object falls more slowly than a heavy one D. Galen invisible organisms called bacteria cause sickness 6. Which of the following correctly matches the person with his book? A. Copernicus the Almagest B. Galen On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs C. Vesalius On the Fabric of the Human Body D. Ptolemy The Starry Messenger 7. The philosopher Bertrand Russell once said, everything... that Aristotle said on scientific subjects proved an obstacle to progress. Explain why this was so. 13

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