Night Observing Project II 27 October 2003 First Observing Session 11 December 2003 Last Observing Session TELESCOPIC OBSERVATIONS

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1 AS102 Fall 2003 Night Lab #2; Page 1 Night Observing Project II 27 October 2003 First Observing Session 11 December 2003 Last Observing Session TELESCOPIC OBSERVATIONS Note - bring a pencil, eraser, and this exercise booklet. A. Objectives Learn the basics of operation of an astronomical telescope. Learn the fundamental parts of an astronomical telescope. Evaluate the possibilities (and the limitations) of telescopic observations of planets. Explore some of the deep sky objects that happen to be visible at the present time, both with a telescope and binoculars. Determine which objects are best observed with different types of telescopes. B. Introduction Ever since Galileo first pointed his small telescope to the sky in 1610, the basic tool of astronomers has been the telescope. The purpose of a telescope is not just to bring objects closer to use the popular expression, but it is to collect more light from stars and galaxies so that we can observe fainter objects than one can see with the unaided eye. Modern astronomers also make telescopes which operate at wavelengths of light which they eye cannot see at all - in the radio, infrared, ultraviolet and x-ray parts of the spectrum. While some types of modern telescopes are barely recognizable as such, there are some general components to telescopes which all of them share. The heart of any telescope is the objective, the primary lens or mirror that gathers and focuses the light into an image. Other optical elements may include an eyepiece for making visual observations, or a camera, a spectrograph or other instrument for making measurements. In addition, all astronomical telescopes must be mounted so that they can be pointed to any part of the sky and so that they can follow stars as the Earth rotates. The most common type of telescope mounting is the equatorial mount shown in Figure 1, on the next page. The polar axis is parallel to the axis of rotation of the Earth; as the Earth turns, the polar axis turns in the opposite direction, thus compensating for the rotation of the Earth and keeping a star in view. In order to observe stars at different declinations, the declination axis permits the telescope to move in the perpendicular direction. In some small telescopes, there are controls to permit the astronomer to move the telescope slowly in both directions, in order to center on a given object and compensate for slight irregularities in the telescope driving motors. In order to move from one part of the sky to another, there are usually two clamps that can be released so that the telescope will move freely across the sky. For coarse positioning towards bright objects, there is usually a finder telescope mounted on the side of the main telescope, and for precise setting of the telescope on faint objects, the setting circles can be used to point to a specific declination and hour angle.

2 AS102 Fall 2003 Night Lab #2; Page 2 Figure 1 -- An Equatorial Telescope Mount Even a small telescope provides an enormous gain over simple naked-eye observations, and modern telescopes equipped with sensitive light detectors are capable of measuring incredibly faint and distant objects. Unfortunately, many people who have seen beautiful color photographs in the textbooks will expect to see similar views when they look through a telescope. However, visual observations, even through a large telescope at a good location, simply cannot match what can be done photographically. For that reason, few astronomical measurements are made visually, but are recorded photographically or electronically for later analysis. Nevertheless, one can gain some insight into the way astronomy is done with simple visual observations using a small telescope. Many people believe that the most important characteristic of a telescope is its magnification, that is, how large the image appears to be when one looks through the telescope. Instead, the most fundamental properties of a telescope are its aperture (the diameter of its objective) and its focal ratio, the ratio of its focal length to its aperture. If two telescopes have the same focal ratio, they will be able to photograph objects that are the same brightness in the same length of time. However, the telescope with the larger aperture will have a larger image and will also (in principle at least) have the larger resolving power. The magnification is a secondary characteristic of a telescope, of relevance only when making visual observations. One can change the magnification of any telescope simply by switching eyepieces, and most small telescopes are equipped with several eyepieces. The magnification of any telescope/eyepiece combination is determined by the ratio of the focal length of the objective divided by the focal length of the eyepiece. That is: magnification = focal length objective /focal length eyepiece As you will see, it is not always desirable to use the highest magnification possible. As the magnification is increased, both the field of view and the brightness of the image decrease. Thus for observing a faint nebula, one would generally want a relatively low power eyepiece, but for some bright object such as the Moon, a much higher power will often be useful. Even when observing something as bright as the Moon, a higher magnification may not always be desirable.

3 AS102 Fall 2003 Night Lab #2; Page 3 The fundamental limit of angular resolution of a telescope is set by its aperture. However, the practical limit of resolution is usually set by our turbulent atmosphere. Generally, even through a very large telescope, the unsteadiness of the atmosphere makes things somewhat blurry; using too large a magnification simply makes a larger, but dimmer and fuzzier, image. Modern astronomers must take these considerations into account in designing telescopes and in preparing for any research project. It is necessary to weigh the various requirements for any project against the capabilities of the available telescopes. A telescope with a long focal length may not permit observations of the faintest objects, such as galaxies, but a short focal length telescope may not be suited for observing planets or binary stars. An additional concern is the need to put telescopes at the best locations possible. If one were going to spend tens of millions of dollars on a telescope, one would like to put the telescope where it can be used as efficiently as possible. For that reason, most modern research telescopes are located on mountain tops in the desert, where they are far from city lights, and where the air is often clear and stable. It is more efficient and practical for astronomers to buy a lot of airplane tickets than it is to let a telescope sit idle much of the time. To get some idea of the possibilities and problems of observing with small telescopes you should try to locate some of the objects listed in Table 1. The emphasis of this project is to learn how telescopes work, and how they can be used to measure the universe. The objects that you can observe on any given evening will depend on weather conditions and on which ones are actually visible at this time of the year. Your instructor will help in selecting the objects to be observed and in setting the telescopes. Among the possible types of observations are the following: The Moon - Obviously the easiest and brightest object to observe is our own Moon. With just a pair of binoculars, the larger lunar craters are observable, even small amateur telescopes offer spectacular views of the Moon. Planets - The amount of detail visible on a planet depends on the turbulence in our atmosphere. On a calm, steady night, the seeing will be good and images will appear sharp, but often on the clearest winter nights, the air will be turbulent and the seeing will be poor. You will have to wait for those rare moments when the air is relatively steady to make your planetary observations. Binary Stars - Binary star observations are useful to demonstrate the capabilities (and the limitations) of small telescopes. By observing several pairs of binary stars that are successively closer together, the astronomer can determine the resolving power of the telescope as well as the effects of the current atmospheric conditions. Because the stars in a binary system are connected to one another gravitationally, it is possible to deduce something about their physical characteristics, even with simple visual measurements. Thus, because the two stars in a binary system are almost exactly at the same distance from us, the one that appears to be brightest really is the more luminous one. Furthermore, in a number of binary star systems, distinct differences in color can be seen. The color differences are the result of temperature differences at their surfaces; if you think of coals in a fire, the hottest coals will appear almost white in color, whereas the cooler ones will appear more orange or red. Similarly, a cool star will appear red or orange, whereas a very hot star will appear white or even blue-white.

4 AS102 Fall 2003 Night Lab #2; Page 4 Star clusters - For modern city dwellers, the best-known star cluster, the Pleiades, is just barely visible as a small group of several stars. In a dark location, a person with normal eyesight can see six or seven stars, and people with exceptional eyesight can see as many as a dozen. With even a small telescope, several dozen stars are visible. More than a thousand star clusters have been catalogued in our galaxy alone, and a number of the brighter ones are visible with small telescopes. As you observe star clusters, you will see that the field of view of the telescope is an important characteristic - in order to see an entire cluster, you need a telescope with a large field of view, which generally means you need a low magnification. You will also notice immediately that some stars in a cluster appear much brighter than the others; since all the stars in the cluster are essentially at the same distance from us, the brightest-appearing stars must also be intrinsically more luminous. This simple observation forms the basis for deriving the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, which is used by astronomers to derive the physical properties and distances of stars. Nebulae, Galaxies, etc - It is much more difficult to observe most nebulae and galaxies with a small telescope. Because such objects are very faint, and the sky is often bright, the contrast between the galaxy or nebula and the sky will be low. Increasing the magnification will only make matters worse - you will find that there is an optimum, fairly low, magnification for viewing faint, fuzzy objects. Because of the difficulty of observing nebulae and galaxies, a large telescope in a dark location is generally required in order to learn anything more than the overall shape of the object.

5 AS102 Fall 2003 Night Lab #2; Page 5 C. Procedure 1. Telescope Components - i.) Your lab instructor will help you to identify the various parts of telescope and demonstrate its use. You should be able to identify the main components of a reflecting and refracting telescope. ii.) Your lab instructor will review several concepts you learned in the Optics and Telescopes exercise you completed earlier in the semester. Many of the fundamentals of geometric optics are reviewed in this observing exercise. Note the relationships between type of object observed, the optical equipment used, and how well the image is formed by this optical configuration. iii.) Check off the components identified on your data sheet. 2. Telescopic Observations - Try as many of the following observations as time and circumstances permit. Some of these observations may not be possible because of weather conditions, or because the object in question simply is not above the horizon at the time. Indicate which observations were not made in the appropriate place in your data page. Remember to look through both the telescope and its finderscope. i) The Moon - Compare the view near the lunar terminator (the day/night boundary of the Moon) with that near the limb (the edge of the Moon). Examine the view with different magnifications by looking through the telescope's finderscope also and/or binoculars. Write appropriate comments on the data page. ii) Planetary Observations - Can you see any surface detail on the planet? Note your observations on your data sheet. What is the dominant color of the planet? Are there any satellites visible? How do they appear? Are they bigger or brighter than one another? Sketch their position in relation to the parent planet. Did you observe this object earlier in the term? Have the satellites moved it their position since last you observed them? Write comments on data page. iii) Binary stars - Take careful note of the appearance of the two stars. What are their relative brightnesses? Are there any color differences? Take note of any other aspects of your observations such as how easy is it to see them as two separate stars. Write comments on data page. iv) Star Clusters - Estimate the number of stars in the cluster. Think about what makes the faintest stars in the cluster different from the brightest ones. Do you see color hues in the starlight? Write comments on data page. v) Nebulae, Galaxies - Use the lowest magnification possible for observing nebulae and galaxies. Describe the shape of the object. Can you see any colors? Write comments on data page. vi) Other objects - From time to time there may be other objects of interest to view - Comets, asteroids, novae are all possibly visible. If there are any such serendipitous objects, be sure to observe them and record what you see. Write comments on data page. 3. Binocular Observations - i) There will be several pairs of binoculars available for observe the larger and brighter objects. With the help of the instructor and a starchart, try to locate at least two such objects. The instructor will guide you to the objects by star hopping from bright stars and patterns to the place the fainter object is located. Remember this path to the object. Use a star chart to assist you in

6 AS102 Fall 2003 Night Lab #2; Page 6 locating the object. List objects you have seen on your record sheet, and record their appearance. Note the optical characteristics of the binoculars you use to observe. Use the opposite side of the data sheet if you need more space for your observations. Try to observe as many of the following objects as time and circumstances permit. You will be observing some of the same objects as are listed in the prior section 2. Telescopic Observations. A pair of binoculars allows better views of these large and bright objects than a telescope would. Why is this the case? Note, some of the views seen through the binoculars will look similar to those seen through the telescope's finderscope. ii) List of large and/or bright objects - Refer to the instructions for observing these objects from the prior section (2.Telescopic Observations). Look for the same characteristics as you would when using an astronomical telescope. Information about these objects are listed within Table 1: the Moon, the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), the double cluster in Perseus, the Pleaides (M45), the Orion Nebula (M42), M35, M36, M37, the Beehive cluster (M44), Mizar/Alcor double star, occasional bright comets. iii) Additional objects to observe that are more challenging with binoculars: Venus, Jupiter's moons, Saturn's ring, Uranus and Neptune, globular star clusters like M13 in Hercules, double stars, supernovae & novae. iv) Indicate in which general area of the sky each object is located and determine in which constellation each appears to be located. Note this on your data sheets. 4. Observations Not Made - Indicate in the appropriate places in your data page, which objects you were not able to observe. List the reasons you did not observe these objects (for example: weather, below horizon, sky too bright, etc.)

7 AS102 Fall 2003 Night Lab #2; Page 7 Table 1 Selected Telescopic Objects Name Constellation R.A. Dec. Description ε Lyra (The Doubledouble) Lyra 18 h 44 m Multiple star system (very close) M11 Scutum 18 h 51 m Open star cluster Ring Nebula (M57) Lyra 18 h 54 m Planetary nebula Albireo (β Cygni) Cygnus 19 h 31 m Beautiful Binary star M15 Pegasus 21 h 30 m Globular star cluster Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda 00 h 43 m Nearest major galaxy (M31) γarietis Aries 01 h 54 m Binary star γandromedae Andromeda 02 h 04 m Beautiful binary star Double cluster (h and χ Perseus 02 h 19 m Open star clusters Persei) (χ) (h) 02 h 22 m Open star clusters Pleiades (M45) Taurus 03 h 47 m Open star cluster Crab nebula (M1) Taurus 05 h 34 m Supernova remnant Orion nebula (M42) Orion 05 h 35 m Emission nebula (HII region) M36 Auriga 05 h 36 m Open star cluster M37 Auriga 05 h 52 m Open star cluster M35 Gemini 06 h 09 m Open star cluster Castor (α Gem) Gemini 07 h 35 m Binary star (very close) Præsape (M44, the Cancer 08 h 40 m Open star cluster Beehive ) M53 Coma 13 h 13 m Globular star cluster Berenices ξ Bootis Bootes 14 h 51 m Beautiful multiple star system β Scorpii Scorpius 16 h 05 m Binary star M4 Scorpius 16 h 24 m Globular star cluster M13 Hercules 16 h 42 m Globular star cluster

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12 AS102 Fall 2003 Night Lab #2; Page 12 Data Page Telescopic Observations Night Project #2 Instructor s Initials Your Name Date Section/TF Observing Conditions: Starting Time Ending Time Wind Temperature Sky Conditions (clear, cloudy, hazy, etc.) The Moon (phase and location) Additional Comments 1. Telescope Components ( ) Polar Axis ( ) Slow Motions ( ) Eyepiece ( ) Focus Control ( ) R.A. Clamp ( ) Declination Axis ( ) Setting Circles ( ) Objective ( ) Finder Telescope ( ) Dec. Clamp 2. Telescopic Observations i) The Moon Telescope Objective focal length Comments (phase, constellation location, craters, mountains, shadows, etc.) ii) Planet Telescope Objective focal length Comments

13 AS102 Fall 2003 Night Lab #2; Page 13 iii)binary stars Telescope Objective focal length Comments iv) Star cluster Telescope Objective focal length Comments v) Nebula or galaxy Telescope Objective focal length Comments vi) Other objects Telescope Objective focal length Comments

14 AS102 Fall 2003 Night Lab #2; Page 14 Telescopic Observations Questions 1) Summarize the telescopes and magnifications you used for this exercise: Object Telescope Magnification A) B) C) D) E) F) G) H) 2a) Which objects look better with high magnifications? 2b) Which with low magnifications? 3) Why do some types of objects actually look more interesting through the finder telescope or binoculars than the main telescope? 4a) Which telescope, the 6.5 refractor or the 8 Schmidt-Cassegrain, has a longer focal length? 4b) Estimate the length of each of the above telescope tubes. 4c) Why is there a large difference in the lengths of the telescope tubes even though the focal lengths are nearly similar? 5a) List two reasons why observing with binoculars is better than using a telescope.

15 AS102 Fall 2003 Night Lab #2; Page 15 5b) List two reasons why a telescope is better. 6) How does observing from an urban location affect the objects you were able to view and those you were not? 7) Why do objects observed at the zenith appear sharper than objects located at lower altitudes (i.e. near the horizon)? NOTE: If you did not observe the following objects, you should still be able to answer these questions. Refer to your textbook or other references for assistance. 8) When observing a planet or a moon, how could you determine the rotation rate of the object? Explain your experimental procedure. 9) Now that you are an apprentice astrophysicist, discuss the two components of the binary star. Which one is the hotter one? Which one is probably the hotter one? Explain. 10) In a star cluster, some stars appeared brighter than others. What can you say about the physical differences in these stars? (For example: age, mass, temperature, distance, etc.)

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