Professor Emeritus in Astronomy, Honorary Lecturer and Senior Research Fellow, University of Glasgow

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1 Astronomy: Principles and Practice Fourth Edition A E Roy, PhD, FRAS, FRSE, FBIS Professor Emeritus in Astronomy, Honorary Lecturer and Senior Research Fellow, University of Glasgow D Clarke, PhD, MInstP, FRAS Honorary Research Fellow in Physics and Astronomy, University of Glasgow lop Institute of Physics Publishing Bristol and Philadelphia

2 Contents Foreword to fourth edition Foreword to third edition Foreword to second edition Foreword to first edition Acknowledgments xvii xix xx xxi xxiii PART 1 Introduction Chapters Naked eye observations Introduction Instantaneous phenomena Day Night A few hours Day Night A month A year 2 Ancient world models 3 Observations made by instruments The subjectivity of simple measurements Instrumentation in astronomy The role of the observer 16 4 The nature of the observables Introduction, Macroscopic bodies Atomic particles Electromagnetic radiation The wave nature of radiation The photon nature of radiation Polarization

3 viii - - Contents 5 The astronomer's measurements Introduction Direction of arrival of the radiation Brightness Factors affecting brightness The magnitude system Polarization Time The night sky Star maps and catalogues Simple observations PART 2 The Celestial Sphere and Elementary Celestial Mechanics Chapters The geometry of the sphere Introduction Spherical geometry Position on the Earth's surface GPS satellites Spherical trigonometry The formulas Proof of cosine formula Proof of sine formula Proof of the analogue to the cosine formula Proof of the four-parts formula Other formulas of spherical trigonometry The small spherical triangle 55 Problems Chapter The celestial sphere: coordinate systems Introduction The horizontal (alt-azimuth) system The equatorial system Southern hemisphere celestial spheres Circumpolar stars The measurement of latitude and declination The geocentric celestial sphere Transformation of one coordinate system into another Right ascension The Sun's geocentric behaviour Sunset and sunrise Megalithic man and the Sun Sidereal time The ecliptic system of coordinates Galactic coordinates 80 Problems Chapter 8 86

4 Contents ix 9 The celestial sphere: timekeeping systems Introduction Sidereal time Mean solar time The relationship between mean solar time and sidereal time The civil day and timekeeping The Greenwich date and zone time (with date) The tropical year and the calendar The Julian date Dynamical time The Earth's geographical zones The seasons Twilight 105 Problems Chapter The reduction of positional observations: I Introduction Atmospheric refraction The laws of refraction Astronomical refraction Measurement of the constant of refraction Horizontal refraction Correction for the observer's altitude Geocentric parallax The semi-diameter of a celestial object Measuring distance in the Solar System The Moon The planets Stellar parallax Stellar parallactic movements The parallactic ellipse The measurement of stellar parallax Theparsec Extrasolar planets 130 Problems Chapter The reduction of positional observations: II Introduction Stellar aberration The velocity of light The angle of aberration The constant of aberration Diurnal and planetary aberration Precession of the equinoxes Measuring the positions of T and the celestial equator Effect of precession on a star's equatorial coordinates The cause of precession Nutation The tropical and sidereal years 147 Problems Chapter

5 x Contents 12 Geocentric planetary phenomena Introduction The Ptolemaic System The Copernican System The astronomical discoveries of Galileo Planetary configurations The synodic period Measurement of planetary distances Geocentric motion of a planet Stationary points The phase of a planet Improvement of accuracy 164 Problems Chapter Celestial mechanics: the two-body problem Introduction Planetary orbits Kepler's laws Kepler's first law Kepler's second law Kepler's third law Newton's laws of motion Newton's law of gravitation The Principia of Isaac Newton The two-body problem Equations of motion The solution of the two-body problem ' The energy integral The velocity of a planet in its orbit The period of revolution of a planet in its orbit, Newton's form of Kepler's third law Measuring the mass of a planet Co-periodic orbits Solar radiation pressure The astronomical unit 183 Problems Chapter 13, Celestial mechanics: the many-body problem Introduction The elements of an orbit General properties of the many-body problem General perturbation theories Special perturbation theories General principles Chaos and unpredictability Dynamics of artificial Earth satellites Forces acting on artificial satellites Effect of the Earth's shape on a satellite orbit Effect of the Earth's atmosphere on a satellite orbit The geostationary satellite Interplanetary transfer orbits 195

6 Contents xi Introduction Transfer between circular, coplanar orbits about the Sun Transfer between particles moving in circular, coplanar orbits Transfer between planets Interplanetary billiards 204 Problems Chapter PART 3 Observational Techniques Chapters The radiation laws Introduction The velocity of light Kirchhoff 's law Solid angle Black body radiation The basic behaviour Stefan's law Wien's displacement law Magnitude measurements The stellar output Stellar magnitudes Spectral lines Introduction The Bohr hydrogen atom The hydrogen spectrum Molecular spectra Basic spectrometry ' Simple considerations The Doppler shift \ Natural line width Thermal line broadening Collisional line broadening Line broadening by rotation Polarization phenomena The Zeeman effect 234 Problems Chapter The optics of telescope collectors Introduction The telescope collector The telescope and the collected energy Stellar brightness Brightness of an extended object Illumination Telescope resolving power Refractors Objectives Chromatic aberration Spherical aberration 253

7 xii.. Contents Coma Astigmatism Curvature of field Distortion of field Transmission efficiency of the refractor Reflectors Principles Newtonian reflectors Cassegrain reflectors Transmission efficiency of the reflector Comparison of refractors and reflectors 263 Problems Chapter Visual use of telescopes Magnifying power Visual resolving power Magnification limits Limiting magnitude Eyepieces Micrometer eyepieces Solar eyepieces 281 Problems Chapter Detectors for optical telescopes The optical spectrum Spectral sensitivity Quantum efficiency The eye as a detector The photographic plate Introduction Spatial resolution \ Speed Spectral sensitivity Photographic photometry Photographic efficiency Limiting magnitude Unsharp masking ' Photoelectric devices Introduction Spectral sensitivity Quantum efficiency The photomultiplier Its principle DC amplification Photon-counting photometry Dark background Limiting magnitude Image converters TV systems and other detectors Charge coupled devices 300 Problems Chapter

8 Contents xiii 19 Astronomical optical measurements 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Positional measurements 19.3 Broadband spectral photometry 19.4 Standard magnitude systems 19.5 Colour indices 19.6 Bolometric magnitudes 19.7 Disturbances caused by the atmosphere Introduction Extinction Atmospheric turbulence 19.8 Image photometry Photographic photometry Photoelectric photometry CCD photometry Polarimetry 19.9 Spectrometry Problems Chapter Modern telescopes and other optical systems 20.1 The new technologies Active optics 20.2 Adaptive optics 20.3 Measurements at high angular resolution Michelson's stellar interferometer Aperture synthesis The intensity interferometer Lunar occultation method Speckle interferometry 20.4 The Schmidt telescope 20.5 The transit telescope 20.6 Zenith tubes 20.7 Portable positional instruments The theodolite The sextant 20.8 The coelostat 20.9 The coronagraph 21 Radio telescopes 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Antennas 21.3 Antenna design The basic dipole The half-wave dipole The Yagi antenna Antenna arrays 21.4 Parabolic dishes 21.5 Horn collectors 21.6 Interferometry A basic interferometer A phase-switched interferometer

9 xiv - - Contents Very long baseline interferometry Aperture synthesis Lunar occultations Polarization Radar observations 372 Problems Chapter Telescope mountings Optical telescopes Equatorial mountings The German mounting The fork mounting The English mounting The coude system Telescope domes Radio telescopes High energy instruments and other detectors Introduction X-ray astronomy X-ray energies X-ray telescopes X-ray spectrometry X-ray detectors y-ray astronomy Detectors and satellites y-ray spectral lines Cerenkov radiation and detection Ultraviolet astronomy Infrared astronomy Millimetre astronomy Neutrino astronomy Introduction Neutrino telescopes Gravitational radiation The missing mass problem \ 393 ' PART 4 Experimental Work Chapter Practical projects Introduction The Sun as a timekeeper A horizontal sundial A vertical sundial A noon-marker 24.3 The Sun as a position finder Simple determination of latitude Theodolite observations Sextant observations 24.4 Observational radio astronomy

10 Contents xv Observing the Sun Observing geostationary satellites Solar disc phenomena: practical exercises Visual observations Recording sunspots by drawing Determination of the solar rotation period The eccentricity of the Earth's orbit Use of a pinhole camera Atmospheric extinction The Moon's orbit: practical projects Measuring the Moon's distance Planetary orbits The outer planets The inner planets Kepler's second law The telescope Resolving power Magnifying power Photography of star fields Spectra Michelson's stellar interferometer Digital photography. 449 Web sites 451 Appendix: Astronomical and related constants 454 A.I Physical constants 454 A.2 Time. 454 A.3 Mathematical constants, systems of units and conversion factors 455 A.4 Basic formulas ; 456 Bibliography Source books Practical projects Books on specific topics 459 Answers to problems 460 Index 469

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