Galaxy Formation and Evolution

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1 Galaxy Formation and Evolution Houjun Mo Department of Astronomy, University of Massachusetts 710 North Pleasant Str., Amherst, MA , USA Frank van den Bosch Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Utah 115 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, UT , USA Simon White Max-Planck Institute for Astrophysics Karl-Schwarzschild Str. 1, D Garching, Germany

2 Contents Preface page xiii 1 Introduction The Diversity of the Galaxy Population Basic Elements of Galaxy Formation The Standard Model of Cosmology Initial Conditions Gravitational Instability and Structure Formation Gas Cooling Star Formation Feedback Processes Mergers Dynamical Evolution Chemical Evolution Stellar Population Synthesis The Intergalactic Medium Time Scales A Brief History of Galaxy Formation Galaxies as Extragalactic Objects Cosmology Structure Formation The Emergence of the Cold Dark Matter Paradigm Galaxy Formation 22 2 Observational Facts Astronomical Observations Fluxes and Magnitudes Spectroscopy Distance Measurements Stars Galaxies The Classification of Galaxies Elliptical Galaxies Disk Galaxies 50 i

3 ii Contents The Milky Way Dwarf Galaxies Nuclear Star Clusters Starbursts Active Galactic Nuclei Statistical Properties of the Galaxy Population Luminosity Function Size Distribution Color Distribution The Mass-Metallicity Relation Environment Dependence Clusters and Groups of Galaxies Clusters of Galaxies Groups of Galaxies Galaxies at High Redshifts Galaxy Counts Photometric Redshifts Galaxy Redshift Surveys at z Lyman-Break Galaxies Lyα Emitters Sub-Millimeter Sources Extremely Red Objects and Distant Red Galaxies The Cosmic Star Formation History Large-Scale Structure Two-Point Correlation Functions Probing the Matter Field via Weak Lensing The Intergalactic Medium The Gunn-Peterson Test Quasar Absorption Line Systems The Cosmic Microwave Background The Homogeneous and Isotropic Universe The Determination of Cosmological Parameters The Mass and Energy Content of the Universe 97 3 Cosmological Background The Cosmological Principle and the Robertson-Walker Metric The Cosmological Principle and its Consequences Robertson-Walker Metric Redshift Peculiar Velocities Thermodynamics and the Equation of State Angular-Diameter and Luminosity Distances Relativistic Cosmology Friedmann Equation The Densities at the Present Time Explicit Solutions of the Friedmann Equation 116

4 Contents iii Horizons The Age of the Universe Cosmological Distances and Volumes The Production and Survival of Particles The Chronology of the Hot Big Bang Particles in Thermal Equilibrium Entropy Distribution Functions of Decoupled Particle Species The Freeze-Out of Stable Particles Decaying Particles Primordial Nucleosynthesis Initial Conditions Nuclear Reactions Model Predictions Observational Results Recombination and Decoupling Recombination Decoupling and the Origin of the CMB Compton Scattering Energy Thermalization Inflation The Problems of the Standard Model The Concept of Inflation Realization of Inflation Models of Inflation Cosmological Perturbations Newtonian Theory of Small Perturbations Ideal Fluid Isentropic and Isocurvature Initial Conditions Gravitational Instability Collisionless Gas Free Streaming Damping Specific Solutions Higher Order Perturbation Theory The Zel dovich Approximation Relativistic Theory of Small Perturbations Gauge Freedom Classification of Perturbations Specific Examples of Gauge Choices Basic Equations Coupling between Baryons and Radiation Perturbation Evolution Linear Transfer Functions Adiabatic Baryon Models Adiabatic Cold Dark Matter Models Adiabatic Hot Dark Matter Models 201

5 iv Contents Isocurvature Cold Dark Matter Models Statistical Properties General Discussion Gaussian Random Fields Simple Non Gaussian Models Linear Perturbation Spectrum The Origin of Cosmological Perturbations Perturbations from Inflation Perturbations from Topological Defects Gravitational Collapse and Collisionless Dynamics Spherical Collapse Models Spherical Collapse in a Λ = 0 Universe Spherical Collapse in a Flat Universe with Λ > Spherical Collapse with Shell Crossing Similarity Solutions for Spherical Collapse Models with Radial Orbits Models Including Non-Radial Orbits Collapse of Homogeneous Ellipsoids Collisionless Dynamics Timescales for Collisions Basic Dynamics The Jeans Equations The Virial Theorem Orbit Theory The Jeans Theorem Spherical Equilibrium Models Axisymmetric Equilibrium Models Triaxial Equilibrium Models Collisionless Relaxation Phase Mixing Chaotic Mixing Violent Relaxation Landau Damping The End-State of Relaxation Gravitational Collapse of the Cosmic Density Field Hierarchical Clustering Results from Numerical Simulations Probing the Cosmic Density Field Large-Scale Mass Distribution Correlation Functions Particle Sampling and Bias Mass Moments Large-Scale Velocity Field 270

6 Contents v Bulk Motions and Velocity Correlation Functions Mass Density Reconstruction from the Velocity Field Clustering in Real Space and Redshift Space Redshift Distortions Real - Space Correlation Functions Clustering Evolution Dynamics of Statistics Self-Similar Gravitational Clustering Development of Non-Gaussian Features Galaxy Clustering Correlation Analyses Power Spectrum Analysis Angular Correlation Function and Power Spectrum Gravitational Lensing Basic Equations Lensing by a Point Mass Lensing by an Extended Object Cosmic Shear Fluctuations in the Cosmic Microwave Background Observational Quantities Theoretical Expectations of Temperature Anisotropy Thomson Scattering and Polarization of the Microwave Background Interaction between CMB Photons and Matter Constraints on Cosmological Parameters Formation and Structure of Dark Matter Halos Density Peaks Peak Number Density Spatial Modulation of the Peak Number Density Correlation Function Shapes of Density Peaks Halo Mass Function Press-Schechter Formalism Excursion Set Derivation of the Press-Schechter Formula Spherical versus Ellipsoidal Dynamics Tests of the Press-Schechter Formalism Number Density of Galaxy Clusters Progenitor Distributions and Merger Trees Progenitors of Dark Matter Halos Halo Merger Trees Main Progenitor Histories Halo Assembly and Formation Times Halo Merger Rates Halo Survival Times Spatial Clustering and Bias Linear Bias and Correlation Function 345

7 vi Contents Assembly Bias Non-Linear and Stochastic Bias Internal Structure of Dark Matter Halos Halo Density Profiles Halo Shapes Halo Substructure Angular Momentum The Halo Model of Dark Matter Clustering Formation and Evolution of Gaseous Halos Basic Fluid Dynamics and Radiative Processes Basic Equations Compton Cooling Radiative Cooling Photoionization Heating Hydrostatic Equilibrium Gas Density Profile Convective Instability Virial Theorem Applied to a Gaseous Halo The Formation of Hot Gaseous Halos Accretion Shocks Self Similar Collapse of Collisional Gas The Impact of a Collisionless Component More General Models of Spherical Collapse Radiative Cooling in Gaseous Halos Radiative Cooling Time Scales for Uniform Clouds Evolution of the Cooling Radius Self-Similar Cooling Waves Spherical Collapse with Cooling Thermal and Hydrodynamical Instabilities of Cooling Gas Thermal Instability Hydrodynamical Instabilities Heat Conduction Evolution of Gaseous Halos with Energy Sources Blast Waves Winds and Wind Driven Bubbles Supernova Feedback and Galaxy Formation Results from Numerical Simulations Three-Dimensional Collapse without Radiative Cooling Three-Dimensional Collapse with Radiative Cooling Observational Tests X-ray Clusters and Groups Gaseous Halos around Elliptical Galaxies Gaseous Halos around Spiral Galaxies 416

8 Contents vii 9 Star Formation in Galaxies Giant Molecular Clouds: the Sites of Star Formation Observed Properties Dynamical State The Formation of Giant Molecular Clouds The Formation of Molecular Hydrogen Cloud Formation What Controls the Star Formation Efficiency Magnetic Fields Supersonic Turbulence Self-Regulation The Formation of Individual Stars The Formation of Low-Mass Stars The Formation of Massive Stars Empirical Star Formation Laws The Kennicutt-Schmidt law Local Star Formation Laws Star Formation Thresholds The Initial Mass Function Observational Constraints Theoretical Models The Formation of Population III Stars Stellar Populations and Chemical Evolution The Basic Concepts of Stellar Evolution Basic Equations of Stellar Structure Stellar Structure Evolution Equation of State, Opacity, and Energy Production Scaling Relations Main Sequence Lifetimes Stellar Evolutionary Tracks Pre-Main-Sequence Evolution Post-Main-Sequence Evolution Supernova Progenitors and Rates Stellar Population Synthesis Stellar Spectra Spectral Synthesis Passive Evolution Spectral Features Age-Metallicity Degeneracy K- and E-Corrections Emission and Absorption by the Interstellar Medium Star Formation Diagnostics Estimating Stellar Masses and Star Formation Histories of Galaxies Chemical Evolution of Galaxies 486

9 viii Contents Stellar Chemical Production The Closed-Box Model Models with Inflow and Outflow Abundance Ratios Stellar Energetic Feedback Mass-Loaded Kinetic Energy from Stars Gas Dynamics Including Stellar Feedback Disk Galaxies Mass Components and Angular Momentum Disk Models Rotation Curves Adiabatic Contraction Disk Angular Momentum Orbits in Disk Galaxies The Formation of Disk Galaxies General Discussion Non-Self-Gravitating Disks in Isothermal Spheres Self-Gravitating Disks in Halos with Realistic Profiles Including a Bulge Component Disk Assembly Numerical Simulations of Disk Formation The Origin of Disk Galaxy Scaling Relations The Origin of Exponential Disks Disks from Relic Angular Momentum Distribution Viscous Disks The Vertical Structure of Disk Galaxies Disk Instabilities Basic Equations Local Instability Global Instability Secular Evolution The Formation of Spiral Arms Stellar Population Properties Global Trends Color Gradients Chemical Evolution of Disk Galaxies The Solar Neighborhood Global Relations Galaxy Interactions and Transformations High-Speed Encounters Tidal Stripping Tidal Radius Tidal Streams and Tails 550

10 Contents ix 12.3 Dynamical Friction Orbital Decay The Validity of Chandrasekhar s Formula Galaxy Merging Criterion for Mergers Merger Demographics The Connection between Mergers, Starbursts and AGN Minor Mergers and Disk Heating Transformation of Galaxies in Clusters Galaxy Harassment Galactic Cannibalism Ram-Pressure Stripping Strangulation Elliptical Galaxies Structure and Dynamics Observables Photometric Properties Kinematic Properties Dynamical Modeling Evidence for Dark Halos Evidence for Supermassive Black Holes Shapes The Formation of Elliptical Galaxies The Monolithic Collapse Scenario The Merger Scenario Hierarchical Merging and the Elliptical Population Observational Tests and Constraints Evolution of the Number Density of Ellipticals The Sizes of Elliptical Galaxies Phase-Space Density Constraints The Specific Frequency of Globular Clusters Merging Signatures Merger Rates The Fundamental Plane of Elliptical Galaxies The Fundamental Plane in the Merger Scenario Projections and Rotations of the Fundamental Plane Stellar Population Properties Archaeological Records Evolutionary Probes Color and Metallicity Gradients Implications for the Formation of Elliptical Galaxies Bulges, Dwarf Ellipticals and Dwarf Spheroidals The Formation of Galactic Bulges The Formation of Dwarf Ellipticals 616

11 x Contents 14 Active Galaxies The Population of Active Galactic Nuclei The Supermassive Black Hole Paradigm The Central Engine Accretion Disks Continuum Emission Emission Lines Jets, Superluminal Motion and Beaming Emission-Line Regions and Obscuring Torus The Idea of Unification Observational Tests for Supermassive Black Holes The Formation and Evolution of AGN The Growth of Supermassive Black Holes and the Fueling of AGN AGN Demographics Outstanding Questions AGN and Galaxy Formation Radiative Feedback Mechanical Feedback Statistical Properties of the Galaxy Population Preamble Galaxy Luminosities and Stellar Masses Galaxy Luminosity Functions Galaxy Counts Extragalactic Background Light Linking Halo Mass to Galaxy Luminosity Simple Considerations The Luminosity Function of Central Galaxies The Luminosity Function of Satellite Galaxies Satellite Fractions Discussion Linking Halo Mass to Star Formation History The Color Distribution of Galaxies Origin of the Cosmic Star Formation History Environmental Dependence Effects within Dark Matter Halos Effects on Large Scales Spatial Clustering and Galaxy Bias Application to High-Redshift Galaxies Putting it All Together Semi-Analytical Models Hydrodynamical Simulations 686

12 Contents xi 16 The Intergalactic Medium The Ionization State of the Intergalactic Medium Physical Conditions after Recombination The Mean Optical Depth of the IGM The Gunn-Peterson Test Constraints from the Cosmic Microwave Background Ionizing Sources Photoionization versus Collisional Ionization Emissivity from Quasars and Young Galaxies Attenuation by Intervening Absorbers Observational Constraints on the UV Background The Evolution of the Intergalactic Medium Thermal Evolution Ionization Evolution The Epoch of Reionization Probing Reionization with 21-cm Emission and Absorption General Properties of Absorption Lines Distribution Function Thermal Broadening Natural Broadening and Voigt Profiles Equivalent Width and Column Density Common QSO Absorption Line Systems Photoionization Models The Lyman α Forest Redshift Evolution Column Density Distribution Doppler Parameter Sizes of Absorbers Metallicity Clustering Lyman α Forests at Low Redshift The Helium Lyman α Forest Models of the Lyman α Forest Early Models Lyman α Forest in Hierarchical Models Lyman α Forest in Hydrodynamical Simulations Lyman-Limit Systems Damped Lyman α Systems Column Density Distribution Redshift Evolution Metallicities Kinematics Metal Absorption Line Systems MgII Systems CIV and OVI Systems 740

13 xii Contents A1 Basics of General Relativity 741 A1.1 Spacetime Geometry 741 A1.2 The Equivalence Principle 743 A1.3 Geodesic Equations 744 A1.4 Energy-Momentum Tensor 746 A1.5 Newtonian Limit 747 A1.6 Einstein s Field Equation 747 A2 Gas and Radiative Processes 748 A2.1 Ideal Gas 748 A2.2 Basic Equations 749 A2.3 Radiative Processes 751 A2.4 Radiative Cooling 760 A3 Numerical Simulations 764 A3.1 N-Body Simulations 764 A3.2 Hydrodynamical Simulations 770 A4 Frequently Used Abbreviations 775 A5 Useful Numbers 776 Bibliography 777 Index 806

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