The Nature of the Solar System The Nature of the Solar System

Transcription

1 Chapter 15 Lecture Outline The Nature of the Solar System The Nature of the Solar System

2 Ancient Greeks Golden Age of early astronomy 660BC-AD150 Used philosophical arguments to explain natural phenomena Also used observational data Most held a geocentric view of the universe Earth-centered view Earth as a motionless sphere at the center of the universe Beyond the planets - Stars on the celestial sphere Transparent, hollow sphere Celestial sphere turns daily around Earth Aristarchus did profess a heliocentric universe and used some simple relationships to calculate Earth Sun distance and sizes of Sun and Moon observational

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5 Ancient Astronomy AD1054 Chinese observed the sudden appearance of a guest star Supernova in Crab Nebula

6 Ancient Astronomy Seven heavenly bodies (planetai) Changed position in sky The seven wanderers included the Sun Moon Mercury through Saturn (excluding Earth)

7 Claudius Ptolemy - A.D. 141, The Almagest

8 Ancient Astronomy Ptolemaic system Geocentric model - earth centered To explain retrograde motion, Ptolemy used two motions for the planets Large orbital circles, called deferents, and Small circles, called epicycles

9 Retrograde Motion as Explained by Ptolemy

10 The Universe According to Ptolemy

11 Retrograde Motion

12 Ptolemy s Explanation of Retrograde Motion

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14 The Birth of Modern Astronomy 1500s and 1600s Five noted scientists Nicolaus Copernicus ( ) On the Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies Concluded Earth was a planet Constructed a model of the solar system that put the Sun at the center, but he used circular orbits for the planets Did not attempt to explain how motion occurred Ushered out old astronomy Greatest contribution was the challenge earth centered universe

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16 The Birth of Modern Astronomy Tycho Brahe ( ) Precise observer King of Denmark built him an observatory Tried to find stellar parallax The apparent shift in a star s position due to the revolution of Earth Did not believe in the Copernican system because he was unable to observe stellar parallax and tried to disprove it Recorded motions of planets, particularly Mars for 20yrs. Fortunately, in his last years he acquired a brilliant assistant Johannes Kepler

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18 Parallax

19 Parallax

20 The Birth of Modern Astronomy Johannes Kepler ( ) Applied math to Brahe s data Ushered in new astronomy Planets revolve around the Sun Derived Three Laws of Planetary Motion Orbits of the planets are elliptical Planets revolve around the Sun at varying speeds There is a proportional relation between a planet s orbital period and its distance to the Sun (measured in astronomical units (AU s) One AU averages about 150 million kilometers, or 93 million miles)

21 Kepler s 1 st Law The orbits of the planets are ellipses, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.

22 Kepler s 2 nd Law The line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the planet travels around the ellipse.

23 Kepler s 3 rd Law The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

24 The Birth of Modern Astronomy

25 The Birth of Modern Astronomy Galileo Galilei ( ) Supported Copernican theory Used experimental data Constructed an astronomical telescope in x magnification! DISCOVERED: Four large moons of Jupiter Planets appeared as disks Phases of Venus Features on the Moon Sunspots

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27 The Birth of Modern Astronomy

28 The Birth of Modern Astronomy

29 In 1616, the Roman Catholic Church had condemned the Copernican Theory as contrary to scripture Galileo published: Dialogue of the Great World Systems - not really! 1630 asked permission of his friend, Pope Urban VIII to publish and was granted Called before the inquisition and made to recant And yet it moves Remained under house arrest for last 10 yrs of life and yet developed texts in many areas Differential Calculus!

30 The Birth of Modern Astronomy Sir Isaac Newton ( ) Formalized the concept of Inertia Law of universal gravitation Proved that the force of gravity, combined with the tendency of a planet to remain in straight-line motion, results in the elliptical orbits discovered by Kepler

31 Orbital Motion Inertia and Gravity

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33 Overview of the Solar System Solar system includes Sun Eight planets and their satellites Asteroids Comets Meteoroids Dwarf Planets

34 Our Solar System: An Overview Nebular theory Planets formed ~ 5 billion years ago Solar system condensed from a solar nebula Most material collected at center as the hot protosun Other material formed a flattened rotating disc Matter in the disc cooled and collided forming planetesimals

35 Nebular Hypothesis of Solar System Formation

36 Our Solar System: An Overview As the protoplanets formed, the materials that compose them separated Dense metallic elements (iron and nickel) sank toward their centers Lighter elements (silicate minerals, oxygen, hydrogen) migrated toward their surfaces Process called chemical differentiation Due to their surface gravities, Venus and Earth retained atmospheric gases Due to frigid temperatures, the Jovian planets contain a high percentage of ices

37 Our Solar System: An Overview

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39 A planet's orbit lies in an orbital plane Similar to a flat sheet of paper The orbital planes of the planets are inclined Planes of seven planets lie within 3 of the Sun's equator Mercury's is inclined 7 (Pluto's is inclined 17 )

40 Our Solar System: An Overview Two groups of planets occur in the solar system 1. Terrestrial (Earth-like) inner planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars Small, dense, rocky Low escape velocities 2. Jovian (Jupiter-like) outer planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune Large, low density, gaseous gas giants Massive Thick atmospheres composed of hydrogen, helium, methane, and ammonia High escape velocities

41 Our Solar System: An Overview

42 The Planets Drawn to Scale

43 Bodies with atmospheres vs airless bodies Due to their surface gravities, Venus and Earth retained atmospheric gases Due to frigid temperatures, the Jovian planets contain a high percentage of ices

44 Our Solar System: An Overview Planetary Impacts Occurred throughout history of solar system Bodies that have little or no atmosphere No air resistance to prevent impact Smallest pieces of debris reach the surface At high velocities, debris produces microscopic cavities on individual mineral grains! Large impact craters result from collisions with massive bodies, such as asteroids and comets

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46 Lunar Crater Euler 12 mi wide in Mare Imbrium

47 Earth s Moon: A Chip Off the Old Block General characteristics Diameter of 3475 km (2150 mi) Unusually large compared to its parent planet Density 3.3x that of water Comparable to Earth s crustal rocks Perhaps Moon has a small iron core Gravitational attraction is 1/6 of Earth s No atmosphere Tectonics no longer active Surface bombarded by micrometeorites Gradually make the landscape smooth

48 Earth s Moon: A Chip Off the Old Block Consensus is that the Moon formed as a result of a collision Mars-sized body collided with semimolten Earth ~4.5 billion years ago Some ejected debris thrown into orbit coalesced to form the Moon Impact model Consistent with Moon having Proportionately smaller core than Earth s Lower density than Earth

49 Earth s Moon: A Chip Off the Old Block Lunar surface Two types of terrain: 1. Maria (singular, mare), Latin for sea Dark regions Fairly smooth lowlands Originated from asteroid impacts and lava flooding 2. Highlands Bright, densely cratered regions Make up most of the Moon Make up all of the back side of the Moon Older than maria

50 Earth s Moon: A Chip Off the Old Block

51 Earth s Moon: A Chip Off the Old Block Lunar surface Craters Most obvious features of the lunar surface Ejecta Occasional rays Associated with younger craters

52 Earth s Moon: A Chip Off the Old Block

53 Formation of Lunar Maria

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55 Earth s Moon: A Chip Off the Old Block Lunar surface Lunar regolith Covers all lunar terrains Gray, unconsolidated debris Composed of: Igneous rocks Breccia Glass beads Fine lunar dust

56 Astronaut Harrison Schmidt, Apollo 17 (1972)

57 Terrestrial Planets Mercury: The Innermost Planet Smallest planet Revolves around the Sun quickly (88 days) Rotates slowly on its axis Mercury s day night cycle lasts 176 Earth-days Greatest temperature extremes: -173 C to 427 C Resembles Earth s Moon in that it has very low reflectivity, no sustained atmosphere, numerous volcanic features, and a heavily cratered terrain Missions to Mercury

58 Terrestrial Planets Photo Mosaic of Mercury Messenger Orbiter

59 Terrestrial Planets Venus: The Veiled Planet Orbits in a near perfect circle every 225 Earth-days Rotates in the opposite direction of other planets Rotates slowly: 1 Venus day is 244 Earth-days Has the densest atmosphere of the terrestrial planets 97% carbon dioxide Extreme greenhouse effect Surface temperature averages about 450 C day and night Surface is completely hidden by a thick cloud layer of tiny sulfuric acid droplets Composition probably similar to Earth s Weak magnetic field means internal dynamics must be very different from Earth s More than 1000 volcanoes >20 km wide identified

60 Terrestrial Planets Mapped by radar(magellan Mission) 80% of surface is subdued plains that are mantled by volcanic flows Low density of impact craters Tectonic deformation must have been active during the recent geologic past Thousands of volcanic structures Missions to Venus

61 Terrestrial Planets Mars: The Red Planet 4th planet from the Sun 1/2 the diameter of Earth Revolves around the Sun in 687 Earth-days Surface temps range from lows of -140 C at the poles in winter to highs of 68 C at the equator in summer Very thin atmosphere: 1% as dense as Earth s Consists of 95% carbon dioxide Small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, and water vapor

62 Terrestrial Planets

63 Terrestrial Planets 2/3 of Mars surface is cratered highlands If Mars had abundant water, it would flow north, forming an ocean Mars has some of the largest volcanoes in the solar system, including Olympus Mons The dominant force of erosion is wind Poleward of 30, water ice is found within 1 m of surface Several canyons Some larger than Earth s Grand Canyon Valles Marineras The largest canyon "Stream drainage" patterns

64 Mons Olympus, an Inactive Shield Volcano on Mars

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66 Stream Channel evidence that Mars once had flowing water - Reconnaissance Orbiter Mission - other missions to Mars

67 Jovian Planets - missions to outer planets Jupiter Largest planet very massive 2.5 more massive than combined mass of planets, satellites, and asteroids If ten times larger, it would be a small star Rapid rotation slightly less than 10 hours Banded appearance Multicolored Bands are aligned parallel to Jupiter s equator Generated by wind system s rapid rotation Great Red Spot In planet s Southern Hemisphere Counterclockwise rotating cyclonic storm

68 Jovian Planets

69 Jovian Planets Structure Surface ocean of liquid hydrogen Halfway in, pressure causes liquid hydrogen to turn into liquid metallic hydrogen Rocky and metallic material probably exists in a central core At least 67 moons Four largest moons discovered by Galileo 1. Callisto Outermost Galilean moon 2. Europa Smallest Galilean moon 3. Ganymede Largest Jovian satellite 4. Io Innermost Galilean moon and volcanically active

70 Jovian Planets

71 Erupting Volcanoes IO Innermost moon 80 + active volcanoes

72 Jovian Planets Saturn Similar to Jupiter in Atmosphere Composition Internal structure Rings Most prominent feature Discovered by Galileo in 1610 Composed of small particles (moonlets) that orbit the planet Most fall into one of two categories of particle density Thought to be debris ejected from moons Origin is still being debated

73 Jovian Planets

74 Jovian Planets Other features of Saturn Dynamic atmosphere Large cyclonic storms similar to Jupiter s Great Red Spot 62 moons, 53 named Titan Largest Saturnian moon Second largest moon in the solar system Has a substantial atmosphere

75 Jovian Planets Enceladus Tectonically active

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77 Jovian Planets Uranus and Neptune: Twins Uranus Rotates on its side Rings Large moons have varied terrains Neptune Dynamic atmosphere One of the windiest places in the solar system Great Dark Spot White cirrus-like clouds above the main cloud deck

78 Jovian Planets Uranus s Moons Uranus s 5 largest moons have varied terrains Innermost was recently geologically active Uranus s Rings Discovered in 1977 that Uranus had 5 rings More recent observations indicate that Uranus has at least 10 rings

79 Uranus

80 Jovian Planets Neptune s Moons Triton Largest Neptune moon Orbits opposite direction of all planets Lowest surface temperature in solar system Atmosphere of mostly nitrogen, some methane Volcanic-like activity Composed largely of water ice, covered with layers of solid nitrogen and methane

81 Jovian Planets Neptune s Rings Neptune has five named rings 2 broad and 3 narrow

82 Small Solar System Bodies Asteroids Most in asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter Small bodies Largest (Ceres) is ~620 mi diameter Some have very eccentric orbits Many recent impacts on the Moon and Earth were collisions with asteroids Irregular shapes Origin uncertain

83 Small Solar System Bodies

84 Image of Asteroid 951 (Gaspra)

85 Asteroid Itokawa Japanese probe, Hayabusa, soft landed 2005, returned samples to earth June Hayabusa 2 launched 2014 and expected to land on its target asteroid July 2018

86 Small Solar System Bodies Comets Often compared to large, dirty snowballs Composed of frozen gases and rocky and metallic materials Frozen gases vaporize when near the Sun Produces a glowing head called the coma Some may develop a tail that points away from Sun Origin not well known, form far from the Sun Most famous short-period comet is Halley s comet 76-year orbital period Potato-shaped nucleus (16 by 8 kilometers)

87 Comet Hale-Bopp

88 Comet Wild2 Stardust brought back coma samples Coma and nucleus of Comet Holmes

89 Small Solar System Bodies Meteoroids -small solid particle Called meteors when they enter Earth s atmosphere A meteor shower occurs when Earth encounters a swarm of meteoroids associated with a comet s path

90 Called meteorites when they are found on Earth Types classified by composition 1. Irons Mostly iron, 5 20% nickel 2. Stony Silicate minerals with inclusions of other minerals 3. Stony irons Mixtures 4. Carbonaceous chondrites Rare, composed of simple amino acids and other organic material May give clues to the composition of Earth s core

91 Small Solar System Bodies

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93 Small Solar System Bodies Dwarf Planets new designation,2006, by IAU Pluto s diameter: 2300 km (1430 mi) Discovered 1930 ~1/5 Earth s diameter <1/2 Mercury s diameter > 1000 Kuiper belt objects were discovered as a second asteroid belt located at the outskirts of the solar system Rich in ices Physical properties similar to those of comets Many other planetary objects are thought to exist in this belt Also, in the Oort Cloud

94 Pluto from New Horizons spacecraft 2015

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96 Best known Dwarf Planets

97 Exploration History of Solar System Voyager I and 11 Missions to the Moon JPL /NASA Missions