11/23/2014 RADIATION AND DOSE MEASUREMENTS. Units of Radioactivity
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1 CHAPTER 4 RADIATION UNITS RADIATION AND DOSE MEASUREMENTS 1 Units of Radioactivity 2 1
2 Radiation Units There are specific units for the amount of radiation you receive in a given time and for the total amount of exposure you are subjected to. 3 Measuring radioactivity rates - What Is a Curie? This is the amount of radioactivity in a sample (the amount of radioactivity = activity) A commonly-used unit for measuring activity is the curie(ci) 1 curie is equal to 2.2 x disintegrations per minute (dpm) Typical activities found in a university lab are in the microcurie(µci Ci) to millicurie(mci mci) range 4 2
3 5 Measuring radioactivity rates- What is a Becquerel (Bq) The amount of radioactive material which decays at a rate of one disintegratrationper second (dps) This is the SI unit of radioactive material or activity 6 3
4 CPM & DPM CPM is the counts per minute that a detector sees DPM are the actual disintegrations (release of energy) by a radioactive sample [disintegrations per minute] Since detectors aren t 100% efficient... DPM = CPM / Detector Efficiency (the detector efficiency for the specific radioisotope, that is) 7 In radiation protection we need to be able to determine the potential hazard from radiation. To do this we need to measure the quantities which describe the radiation field known as: 1. Radiometric quantities and we also need to measure the effects produced by the radiation dose. 2. Dosimetric quantities 8 4
5 1. Radiometric quantities 1.1 Energy 1.2 Exposure (X) 1.3 Kerma (K) Energy The energy of ionizing radiation is measured in terms of electron volts (ev), where one electron volt is the amount of energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential difference of one volt. In terms of joules: 1 ev = 1.6 x J The electronvolt is a very small unit of energy, even in atomic terms, so in practice the energy of radiation is usually given in kiloelectronvolts (kev) or megaelectronvolts (MeV). 10 5
6 Exposure The exposure is the absolute value of the total charge of the ions of one sign produced in air when all the electrons liberated by photons per unit mass of air are completely stopped in air. X = dq/dm 2: Radiation units and dose quantities Exposure (X) Historically, x-rays and gamma rays were quantified by the amount of ionization they produced in air (i.e. the exposure). The special unit of exposure (symbol X) was originally called the roentgen (R), named after the discoverer of x-rays, Wilhelm Roentgen. The SI unit of exposure is the coulomb per kilogram (C kg-1) and this is related to the roentgen as follows: 1 R = 2.58 x 10-4 C kg -1 of air The roentgen is no longer used in radiation protection but there are many instruments which give readings in roentgen (R) or roentgen per hour (R h -1 ). 12 6
7 Exposure rate: X/t Exposure rate (and later, dose rate) is the exposure produced per unit of time. The SI unit of exposure rate is the C/kg per second or R/s. In radiation protection it is common to indicate these rate values per hour (e.g. R/h). 2: Radiation units and dose quantities Kerma (K) The term Kerma refers to the kinetic energy released per unit mass of absorber and is basically a measure of the kinetic energy of charged particles produced in an absorbing medium by uncharged radiations (i.e. photons and neutrons). When the absorbing medium is air, the term air kerma is used. The unit of kerma is the joule per kilogram and it is given the special name gray (Gy): 1 Gy = 1 J kg
8 Absorbed dose, D and KERMA The KERMA (kinetic energy released in a mass) K = de trans /dm where de trans is the sum of the initial kinetic energies of all charged ionizing particles liberated by uncharged ionizing particles in a material of mass dm The SI unit of kerma is the joule per kilogram (J/kg), termed Gray (Gy). In diagnostic radiology, Kerma and D are equal. 2: Radiation units and dose quantities Relation between absorbed dose and exposure It is possible to calculate the absorbed dose in a material if the exposure is known D [Gy]. = f. X [C kg -1 ] f = conversion coefficient depending on medium The absorbed energy in a quantity of air exposed to 1 [C kg -1 ] of X Rays is [Gy] f(air) = : Radiation units and dose quantities
9 Example of conversion coefficient: f f values ([Gy] / Ckg -1 ]) Photon energy Water Bone Muscle 10 kev kev : Radiation units and dose quantities Summary of radiometric quantities Quantity Symbol SI Unit SI Unit Name Conversion Energy Joule J electronvolt (ev) 1 ev = 1.6 x J Exposure X Coulomb per kilogram C kg -1 1 R= 2.58 x 10-4 C kg -1 Kerma K Joule per kilogram J kg -1 gray (Gy) 1 Gy = 1 J kg
10 2. Dosimetric quantities 2.1 Absorbed dose (D) 2.2 Equivalent Dose (H) 2.3 Effective Dose (E) Absorbed dose (D) Absorbed dose is a measure of the energy deposited in any medium by any type of radiation. It is given the symbol D. The SI unit of absorbed dose, like that of kerma, is the joule per kilogram (J kg-1) and is given the name of gray (Gy). However, when we are talking about absorbed dose, it is very important to specify the type of material in which the energy is being deposited, for example 1.3 mgy absorbed dose to water. The original unit of absorbed dose was the radiation absorbed dose (rad) and one gray is equal to 100 rad. 1 Gy = 100 rad or 1 mrad = 10 μgy 20 10
11 EXAMPLE Convert the following absorbed doses and dose rates between old and new units: a) 0.4 mrad to Gy. b) 7.5 mgy h -1 to rad h -1. Answer a) 1 mrad = 10 mgy So 0.4 mrad = 0.4 x 10 mgy = 4 mgy Hence 0.4 mrad is equal to 4 mgy or 4 x 10-6 Gy b) 1 Gy h -1 =100 rad h -1 or 1 mgy h -1 =0.1 mrad h -1 So 7.5 mgy h -1 =7.5 x 0.1 mrad h -1 =7.5 x 10-4 rad h -1 =0.75 mrad h -1 Hence 7.5 mgy h -1 is equal to 0.75 mrad h -1 or 7.5 x 10-4 rad h
12 2.2 Equivalent Dose (H) Absorbed dose tells us how much energy is deposited in an absorbing material but it does not tell us how much damage may be done to tissue, nor does it indicate the level of the potential hazard. For example, the level of damage produced by an absorbed dose to tissue of 0.5 Gy would be very much greater if the energy were deposited by alpha radiation or by neutrons than it would be if the energy were deposited by gamma radiation Hence, a quantity known as equivalent dose is used as a measure of the biological effect of a particular type of radiation on organs or tissues. It is calculated by multiplying the absorbed dose to an organ or tissue (measured in gray) by a dimensionless factor called the radiation weighting factor (w R ) Equivalent Dose (H) Radiation weighting factors as recommended in ICRP 60 are given in the following table 24 12
13 2.2 Equivalent Dose (H) Equivalent dose (symbol H) is defined as shown in Equation 1 for a particular type of radiation interacting with a particular organ or tissue: H T R = DT R x w R where H T R is the equivalent dose to an organ or tissue T delivered by radiation type R D T R is the absorbed dose to an organ or tissue T delivered by radiation type R w R is the radiation weighing factor for radiation type R The SI unit for equivalent dose is also the joule per kilogram but it is given the special name of sievert (Sv) to distinguish it from absorbed dose. 1 Sv = 1 J kg where 2.2 Equivalent Dose (H) H = (D x w ) T T R R R H T is the total equivalent dose to an organ or tissue T delivered by all radiation types R indicates the sum for each radiation type R D T R is the absorbed dose to an organ or tissue T delivered by radiation type R w R is the radiation weighing factor for radiation type R The original unit of equivalent dose was the rem where one sievert is equal to 100 rem 1 Sv = 100 rem or 1 mrem = 10 mmsv 26 13
14 2.3 Effective Dose (E) Some tissues and body organs are more sensitive to radiation than others and an equivalent dose in one organ may be more hazardous than the same equivalent dose in another organ. The ICRP recommends tissue weighting factors (w T ) which are applied to specific body organs. These dimensionless factors take into consideration the different radiosensitivities of the different organs and tissues. The following table lists the tissue weighting factors as recommended in ICRP Effective Dose (E) Tissue Tissue Weighting Factor (w T ) Gonads 0.20 Bone marrow (red) 0.12 Colon 0.12 Lung 0.12 Stomach 0.12 Bladder 0.05 Breast 0.05 Liver 0.05 Oesophagus 0.05 Thyroid 0.05 Skin 0.01 Bone Surface 0.01 Remainder
15 2.3 Effective Dose (E) The effective dose (symbol E) is the total effective dose for all exposed organs or tissues is the sum of the tissue equivalent doses multiplied by the appropriate tissue weighting factor for those organs and tissues E = (H x w ) T where E is the total effective dose to all exposed organs and tissues T T T indicates the sum for each organ or tissue type T H T is the equivalent dose to an organ or tissue T w T is the tissue weighing factor for an organ or tissue type T 29 1 msv equivalent dose to the lung lead to the same risk for the equivalent dose of the thyroid gland. What is the value of the equivalent dose of the thyroid gland. (0.12/0.05) x (1mSv)= 2.4 msv 30 15
16 Background Radiation Natural sources =300 mrem Occupational =0.9 mrem Consumer products =5-13 mrem Misc. environmental = mrem Medical =53 m Nuclear Fuel = mrem From NCRP Report Example 1 A patient has a chest x-ray. The area of the chest exposed to the x-ray beam is approximately 500 cm 2 and the intensity of the x-ray beam is 0.3 W/m 2. The patient is exposed for 0.2 seconds. Hospital regulations state that the absorbed dose must be kept below Gy. a) What is the power of the beam to which the patient is exposed? b) What is the maximum human-equivalent dose for the patient? a) Power (J/s) = Intensity(W/m ) area(m ) = cm = m ( 1cm = (0.01) m = m ) b) Energy imparted by beam = power x time = x 0.2 J = 0.003J (i) Minimum mass of 0.15 W 0.2 s 0.015W 0.2s 0.002Gy = min. mass = = 1.5Kg min. mass 0.002Gy (ii) Dose = energy/mass = 0.003J/1.5kg = 0.002Gy (iii) Q = 1for x - rays, (i.e. twice the recommendedannual limit by the ICRP for the public). Power = 0.015W tissue to keep absorbed dose below Gy thus max. human equivalent dose = 0.002Sv = 2mSv
17 EXAMPLE 2: Calculate the effective dose received by a man exposed uniformly to the entire body dose of 8.4 Gy of gamma rays and 1.2 Gy of neutrons with an energy 90 kev. E = S T W T H T E = H T = S R W R D T,R = W g D T, g + W n D T,n W n =10 W γ =1 E = 1 x x 1.2 = 20.4 msv 33 17
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