The science of electrical engineering is unique in that almost everything we work with does not allow for direct observation. It is much like the
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2 The science of electrical engineering is unique in that almost everything we work with does not allow for direct observation. It is much like the allegory of Plato s cave, where a group of prisoners has, since infancy, been shackled to the floor of a cave. The only light in the cave comes from a fire behind the prisoners. In addition, there is a roadway between the prisoners and the light where puppet showmen perform. The prisoners observe the antics of the puppet showmen by looking at the shadows they make on the wall in front of them they are not able to directly see the puppets. Eventually, the prisoners create a world where they name the shadows, and believe they know what they look like. Philosophers, Plato opined, are people who have been freed from the chains and are more able to directly observe the puppets in other words, reality. Plato (channeling Socrates) in fact used this allegory to emphasize the importance of education. We are using it here a little differently through education and application of all the things that you will learn physics, math and chemistry you will be able to observe these shadows, if not directly, at least with a good understanding of how they will operate under certain conditions and how you will design your systems to operate in the way that you need them to operate. 2
3 Some of the phenomena electrical and computer engineers need to observe are the existence and motion of electrons and protons; these create electric fields, magnetic fields, or in the case of alternating fields, electromagnetic fields. We also need to be able to observe the response of different materials to these fields. These are all phenomena that are not directly observed however, they are related to forces and motion that can be more directly observed. What we actually observe or measure are the magnitude of a current through a wire (for example), the magnitude and polarity of a voltage between two points (this is directly related to the electric field), the resistance, inductance or capacitance of a component, and the reaction of different components to the existence of a constant or time-varying voltage or current at their terminals. 3
4 For constant fields, we use an ammeter for current, a voltmeter for voltage and an Ohmmeter for resistance. For time-varying fields, we will use in this class an oscilloscope, but in more advanced classes you will also learn how to use spectrum, network and signal analyzers. In lab, you will have to learn how to operate dc power supplies and signal generators to generate the voltages and currents you need to be able to observe the response of your circuit. 4
5 Charge is quantized that is, it is expressed in terms of its smallest value, which is e. 5
6 This is a perfect example of using a directly observable quantity force to describe a phenomenon that is not directly observable the electric field. The attractive or repelling force is directly related to the electric field of each charge. 6
7 Charge is never static it always moves due to thermal motion; however, this motion is random and generally does not lead to measurable current. 7
8 In order for there to be current, conditions must exist so that charge moves from one point to another in a direct line. 8
9 Current expresses the rate of flow of charged particles; the unit of current is 1A; 1A is equivalent to one Coulomb of charge going through a surface area per second. 9
10 In order to measure current, we need to break its path and insert an ammeter in such a way so that the current flows through the ammeter. 10
11 While it is easier to directly observe the force between two particles, it is important to understand that this force is due to the electric field that exists around each particle. If, then, we remove one of the charges in the first schematic above and look only at each charge individually, we can define a vector known as the electric field. The field has the potential to exert a force on another charge, if that charge finds itself in the vicinity of the first charge. 11
12 We build up electric field by distributing charge in such a way as to have a surplus of positive charge on one side and an equivalent deficit of positive charge (or surplus of negative charge) on the other side of a component. The components depicted here are a capacitor and a resistive element. A perfect conductor is not able to develop these charge distributions, so the electric field inside a conductor is zero. However, as in the case of the capacitor, two conductors that are not electrically connected can exhibit a potential difference, so an electric field can exist between the two. This is called a capacitor, and the electric field is measured as a voltage difference between the terminals of a capacitor. In the case of a resistor, what happens is that while charge flows through the resistor, it does not flow unimpeded. Thus, and imbalance in the distribution of charge is developed along the length of the resistor, thus creating a voltage drop in the direction of the current. It is the electric field (voltage) at the terminals of the resistor that provides the force that propels the charge, thus creating the conditions for establishing a current. 12
13 13
14 A magnetic force, on the other hand, is exerted on a moving particle when it travels through a magnetic field. Well, not always. If the charged particle is moving parallel to the magnetic field lines, no force will be exerted on it. If perpendicular, a maximum force will be exerted and it will be equalt to the charge times the velocity times the magnitude of the electric field. The force will be perpendicular to the surface described by the velocity vector and the magnetic field vector. 14
15 What is current? It is moving charge. So, if I place a flexible line of current perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, then the line of current will bend in the direction of the resulting force. In order to determine the direction of the force, we use the FBI rule. Using your left hand, align the middle finger with I, the forefinger with B and then the thumb will naturally point in the direction of F. Try this with figures (b) and (c) above. The circle with the + or x in the middle means the field is going IN to the paper, while if the circles had a dot in the middle, the field would be pointing outward. 15
16 One application which we will observe in the lab is the electric motor. In fact, in the case of this versatile device, the same configuration can give us the motor where we drive current through the wire which interacts with the magnetic field, resulting in a force that rotates the motor. It can also give us the generator where we use mechanical means to rotate the coil inside a magnetic field. The changing magnetic flux through the surface of the coil will result in 16
17 In lab, you will construct a basic motor and a coil gun. 17
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