Generating functions and enumerative geometry

Transcription

1 Generating functions and enumerative geometry Ragni Piene Centre of Mathematics for Applications and Department of Mathematics, University of Oslo October 26, 2005 KTH, Stockholm

2 Generating functions Enumerative geometry Bell polynomials Curves on surfaces

3 Partitions Let p denote the partition function: p(n) is the number of ways of writing n = n n k, where n 1 n k 1 (= the number of Young Ferrers diagrams of size n). The generating function for p, ϕ(q) := n 0 p(n)q n, is equal to the formal power series Π m 1 (1 q m ) 1 = 1 + q + 2q 2 + 3q 3 + 5q

4 Fibonacci numbers A recursive relation sometimes gives a closed formula for the corresponding generating function: F 0 = 0, F 1 = 1 and F n = F n 1 + F n 2 for n 2 This gives n 2 F n q n = n 2 F n 1 q n + n 2 F n 2 q n hence f(q) := n 0 F n q n = q 1 q q 2

5 Enumerative geometry: count the number of certain geometric objects that satisfies an appropriate number of conditions. There are two lines in space meeting four given lines. There are eight circles tangent to three given circles in the real plane. Two common methods to solve a problem in enumerative geometry: Degenerate the objects and/or the conditions so that the problem has a combinatorial solution. Represent the objects as points and the conditions as cycles, in some parameter space, and apply intersection theory.

6 Plane rational curves Let N d denote the number of plane rational curves of degree d passing through 3d 1 given points. Kontsevich s recursion formula: N d = d 1 +d 2 =d If we set n d := n d = d 1 +d 2 =d N d1 N d2 ( d 2 1 d 2 2 N d (3d 1)!, then ( ) ( ) 3d 4 3d 4 ) d 3 3d 1 2 1d 2 3d 1 1 n d1 n d2 d 1 d 2 ((3d 1 2)(3d 2 2)(d + 2) + 8(d 1)) 6(3d 1)(3d 2)(3d 3) Kontsevich s original proof used a degeneration argument: mapping the one-dimensional family of curves through 3d 2 points to P 1 using the cross-ratio, and counting degrees above 0 and 1.

7 For example, for d = 3: N 3 = = 12 The naive generating function of the problem is N d q d However, the correct generating function turns out to be d Γ(q, t) := d N d q d t 3d 1 /(3d 1)! = d n d q d t 3d 1 This function satisfies the differential equation Γ 222 = (Γ 112 ) 2 Γ 111 Γ 122 which gives Kontsevich s formula (associativity of the quantum product).

8 Define the Bell polynomials P r (y 1,..., y r ) by P 0 = 1 and i ( ) i P i+1 (y 1,..., y i+1 ) = P i k (y 1,..., y i k )y k+1 k k=0 The generating function φ(q) := P i q i /i! satisfies φ (q)/φ(q) = y k q k 1 /(k 1)! hence is given by the formal identity φ(q) = exp ( yj q j /j! ) The coefficient of y k 1 1 ykr r in the polynomial P r is equal to r! ( 1 ) k1 ( 1 ) kr k 1! k r! 1! r! (Link to Faà di Brunos formula!)

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10 Diagonals Consider the r-fold product X r = X... X. Problem: how many diagonals of each type exists? Use the following shorthand notation d i = [i points are equal] For example, d r 5 1 d 2 d 3 means a diagonal where, for fixed distinct integers i, j, k, l, m, x i = x j and x k = x l = x m. The number of diagonals of type d k 1 1 dkr r r! ( 1 ) k1 ( 1 ) kr, k 1! k r! 1! r! the coefficient appearing in the Bell polynomial. is equal to

11 Configuration spaces The configuration space of r points in X is the complement of the diagonals in X r = X... X. Fulton and MacPherson constructed a compactification X[r] of this space by adding nonsingular divisors D S for S {1,..., n}, intersecting transversally (and non-emptily only if nested). The Chow ) ring of X[r] is generated over that of X r by the = 2 r r 1 classes [D S ], with explicit relations. r ( r k=2 k Manin computed the generating function for the Euler Poincaré characteristics χ(x[r]) in terms of χ(x). The strata and nests are enumerated by means of trees.

12 Counting curves on surfaces Let π : F Y be a family of smooth projective surfaces and D F a relative divisor (a family of curves). Set Y r := {y Y D y has r nodes}. The expected codimension of Y r in Y is r. Problem: find the class [Y r ] in the Chow group A r Y. For example, Y 1 = the discriminant of D Y, and [Y 1 ] = π (polynomial in the Chern classes of the family). To find a formula for general r, proceed by recursion: resolve one node at a time, and reduce the family of r-nodal curves to a family of (r 1)-nodal curves with known Chern classes.

13 Node polynomials The solution can be expressed via Bell polynomials: Theorem (Kleiman P.) If the family of curves D F Y is dimensionally general, then Y r is the support of a natural nonnegative cycle U r of codimension r. Moreover, for r 8, the class u r := [U r ] is given by u r = P r (a 1,..., a r )/r! where a i = π b i, and the b i are polynomials in the Chern classes of D and F/Y and are output by a certain algorithm. Benefit: To go from u r to u r+1, need only to determine a r+1.

14 The proof of the Theorem is based on the recursion formula ru(d) r = π ( 1) i u(d i ) ri, where D i F i X i are derived families with fewer nodes. i 2 The real difficulties start for r 8. Then the family F 2 X 2 has non-reduced fibres (coming from points of multiplicity 4 in the fibers of D) in too high dimension. Here we need to use the theory of residual, or excess, intersection. The recursive relation is the key to the appearance of the Bell polynomials. The other main point is the way the Chern classes of the derived families depend on the Chern classes of the original family.

15 Proof for r 7 Let X i F denote the set of i-multiple points on fibers of D. The class x i := [X i ] is a polynomial in the Chern classes of D and F/Y. Set b 1 = x 2, and define b s by a certain algorithm. Then u 1 (D) = π [X 2 ] = π x 2 =: a 1 = P 1 (a 1 ). Assume r 2 and the theorem holds for all families verifying the conditions with r replaced by r 1. Then r!u r (D) = π ( Pr 1 (a 1 (D 2 ),...) By definition, a s (D i ) = π i b s (D i ) and we have (r 1)! (r 4)! P r 4(a 1 (D 3 ),...) ) P s (a 1 (D i ),..., a s (D i )) = P s (π a 1 (D) + Q(i, b 1 ),...) x i

16 The Bell polynomials satisfy a binomial identity: P s (π a 1 (D, π) + Q(i, b s ),..., π a s (D, π) + Q(i, b s )) s ( ) s = P s k (π a 1,..., π a s k )P k (Q(i, b 1 ),..., Q(i, b k )). k k=0 Using the definition of b s and a s = π b s, we get r 1 ( ) r 1 r!u r (D) = P r k (a 1,..., a r k )a k+1 = P r (a 1,..., a r ). k k=0

17 Curves on K3 surfaces Let S be a K3 surface, C S a curve, r, g integers such that C 2 /2 = g + r 1, and set N g,r := #{r-nodal curves in C of geometric genus g through g given points of S} Bryan and Leung proved: if S is general and [C] is primitive, then f g (q) := N g,r q r = (DG 2) g q1 g Here = q Π m 1 (1 q m ) 24 is the discriminant (a modular form of weight 12) and DG 2 is the quasimodular form equal to the derivative of the Eisenstein series G 2 = k 1 σ(k)qk, where σ(k) = d k d.

18 For g = 0, f 0 (q) = Π(1 q m ) 24 = ϕ(q) 24, where ϕ is the generating function of the partition function. Proof (g = 0): Degenerate (in symplectic geometry) S to an elliptic fibration S P 1 with 24 nodal fibers, and C to C = s(p 1 ) + rφ, where s is a section and φ is a fiber. The number of stable genus 0 maps for a given r can be identified with the sum M a1 M a24, where M ai is the number of such curves mapping a i : 1 to the ith nodal fibre, and the sum is taken over 24-tuples (a 1,..., a 24 ) with a i = r. One can see that M ai is equal to p(a i ), and hence the generating function is the 24th power of the generating function ϕ(q).

19 Conjectures Göttsche s conjecture: If F = S Y and Y = C is ample enough, then the generating function N r q r, with N r the number of r-nodal curves in the system, can be expressed in terms of two universal (but unknown and un-understood) formal power series and three quasimodular forms. If the canonical bundle of S is trivial, then only quasimodular forms appear. Proved by Bryan and Leung if S is a general K3 or Abelian surface and the class of C is primitive. Itzykson and Di Francesco conjectured that for plane curves of degree d: N r = 3r r! d2r 2 3r r d 2r r! Corresponds to the recursive formula giving r!u r = u r , where u 1 = 3d

20 Thom polynomials An alternative approach to determining the classes u r : apply multiple point theory to the map π X2 : X 2 Y. The problem with this approach is that the map is not generic (and X 2 is not smooth). However, Kazarian observed that it is (generically) a Legendre map, and that therefore it is possible to find formulas based on the knowledge of the Thom polynomials of all relevant singularities (so this can only be done explicitly only up to the codimension for which all singularities are classified and their Thom polynomials known).

21 Kazarian s formula for r!u r is given as a linear combination of terms of the form S k 1 1 Skr r with k 1 + 2k rk r = r. The class S i = S A i 1, for i 2, corresponds to an excess or residual intersection coming from a diagonal of type d i. The coefficients in the linear combination are the same as the ones appearing in the Bell polynomials.

22 Kazarian s formula translates to r!u r = P r (S 1, S 2,..., ( 1) r S r ) but, unfortunately, this diagonal approach does not make the computations any easier. For example, S 2 is equal to the equivalence of the diagonal in the product S 1 S 1 plus twice the class of fibers with A 2 singularities. In general, to compute the contribution from d i, all singularities of codimension i will have to be taken into account.

23 Tropical geometry A new approach to the enumeration of (complex) curves on toric surfaces was given by Mikhalkin, using tropical geometry. The complex curves are counted by counting the corresponding tropical (real) curves, with appropriate multiplicities. The number of curves is given by a count of certain lattice paths in the Newton polygon defining the tropical curves. In the case of plane curves, the number N g,d is equal to the (weighted) number of so-called λ-increasing lattice paths of length 3d 1 + g in the triangle with corners (0, 0), (d, 0), (0, d).

24 Counting rational cubic curves passing through 8 points: N 3 = = 12 Hence the original enumerative geometry problem is reduced to a combinatorial one!

25 Outline Generating functions Enumerative geometry Bell polynomials Jeopardy What question has answer 3280? Which magic number appears in the formula for u8? What question has answer 5895? Curves on surfaces