The Physics of Cosmic Rays
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1 The Physics of Cosmic Rays QuarkNet summer workshop July 23-27,
2 Recent History Most natural phenomena can be explained by a small number of simple rules. You can determine what these rules are by observation and by doing experiments. This is how science has progressed since the 1700 s. 2
3 More Recent History Nils Bohr described atomic structure using early concepts of Quantum Mechanics Albert Einstein extends the laws of classical mechanics to describe velocities that approach the speed of light. All matter should obey the laws of quantum mechanics and special relativity. 3
4 The Birth of Particle Physics In 1896, Thompson showed that electrons were particles, not a fluid. In 1905, Einstein argued that photons behave like particles. In 1907, Rutherford showed that the mass of an atom was concentrated in a nucleus. Particles that should obey the laws of quantum mechanics and relativity. 4
5 Something Totally New In 1896, Becquerel discovers uranium rays : 5
6 Something Totally New Rutherford classifies types of radiation: α β γ paper tin foil lead 6
7 Something Totally New Marie Curie determines that radioactivity has nothing to do with chemistry... Nobel prizes in 1903 and 1911! 7
8 Discoveries of Cosmic Rays Viktor Hess studied the electrification of air using electrometers. Ionization from radioactive decay would deposit charge on the electrometer. But no matter how well they were made, they leaked. Leakage rate was the same in the middle of a lake, but lower in a cave... 8
9 Discoveries of Cosmic Rays In 1912 Viktor Hess carried three electrometers to an altitude of 5300 meters in a balloon flight: Ionization rate decreased up to ~700 m Above 700 m then it increased with altitude. At 5300 m the ionization rate 4 rate at ground level "The results of my observation are best explained by the assumption that a radiation of very great penetrating power enters our atmosphere from above." 9
10 Open Questions Same intensity at night not from the sun! Were they charged like beta rays or uncharged like gamma rays? Do they come down or go up? How do you know for sure? Electrometers can t easily answer these questions... 10
11 Correlation with Earth s Magnetic Field Compton argued strongly against the suggestion that they were photons! 11
12 Particle Detectors In 1911, Wilson developed the expansion cloud chamber which used saturated water vapor. In the classroom, we would normally use a diffusion cloud chamber using saturated alcohol vapor. 12
13 Images of Cosmic Rays Anderson discovers the positive electron in Anti-matter! 13
14 Discovery of other particles Anderson and Neddermayer got very good at measuring energy and mass. By triggering a camera using two Geiger counters they obtained this picture, published in 1938: Curved too much to be a proton. Traveled too far to be an electron. It must have intermediate mass... 14
15 Charged Pions and Kaons Charged particles also expose stacks of photographic emulsion The pion had been predicted to explain strong nuclear forces Not a muon: pions interacted with nuclei Another strange particle was observed with about ½ the mass of the proton Strangely, they were always produced in pairs and also interacted with nuclei 15
16 The Known Particles in
17 New Accelerators: Synchrotrons 1952: Brookhaven 3 GeV Cosmotron 1954: Berkeley 6 GeV Bevatron 1 ev is the energy of an electron accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 1 volt. 1 e = 6.02x10-19 Coulombs. Normally used to describe energies of fundamental particles: A tennis ball might have a kinetic energy of ev... but so do some cosmic rays. 17
18 New Detectors: Bubble Chambers The Berkeley 72 inch liquid hydrogen bubble chamber 18
19 Known Particles in
20 Strongly Interacting Particles:
21 Strongly Interacting Particles:
22 Fundamental Particles of Matter Quarks Leptons Hadrons are made of quarks: Baryons are : Mesons are : Grouped into three families with increasing mass... Why? We still have no idea! 22
23 Back to Cosmic Rays In 1938, Pierre Auger was studying cosmic rays in the Alps. He observed that two detectors located many meters apart detected particles at exactly the same time. Discovery of Extensive Air Showers: secondary particles produced in the collision of a high energy primary particle with air he estimated the energies of some of the primary particles to be ev Rossi (USA) and Zatsepin (Russia) constructed arrays of detectors to study air showers.
24 The State of the Art Detect Cherenkov light when a muon passes through a tank of water 24
25 The State of the Art 25
26 Air Showers Primary particles are mostly protons They interact with nuclei of atoms in the upper atmosphere producing showers of pions Neutral pions decay immediately to photons, photons produce e + e - pairs Pions also interact with nuclei, but also decay to muons Muons do not interact with nuclei: They lose energy as the ionize air but many reach sea level 26
27 Properties of Primary Particles Primary composition: 90% protons 9% helium nuclei 1% electrons (depends on energy) Charged particles deflected by magnetic fields Near the earth s magnetic field In the galaxy s magnetic field In the magnetic fields between galaxies Local magnetic field caused by earth s dipole (latitude effect) and by the solar wind (day/night effect) When cosmic rays arrive, they generally don t point back to their source.
28 Do they come from the sun? The solar wind consists of hot particles with enough kinetic energy to escape the sun s gravity: Most have energies less than a few GeV These don t produce extensive air showers! Do produce neutrons...
29 How big is the footprint? Typically a few km across, but not 10 s of km. This is about the size of Lafayette... 29
30 Energy Spectrum Lots are low energy Some are high energy Possibly accelerated in magnetic fields around stars Very few are ultra high energy about 1 per square km per century with energy > ev Probably come from within our own galaxy... 30
31 Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin cutoff High energy photons can break apart protons: Equivalently, at very high energies, a proton can collide with a low energy photon The universe is full of low energy photons the cosmic microwave background radiation Very high energy protons can t travel too far without interacting with the CMB photons Typical sizes of galactic clusters
32 Recent Experiments think they see this... Deficit at energies > ev 32
33 Point Sources? 33
34 Connection with Lightning? The electric fields in clouds is not strong enough to ionize the air Something else must trigger lightning An extensive air shower could produce enough ionization to start the runaway breakdown resulting in lightning But this hasn t been conclusively demonstrated... See Scientific American article, Januray
35 Summary Who would have thought that leaky electrometers would lead here? Led to the birth of accelerator based particle physics Still a very active topic of research today The Fermilab cosmic ray detector can emulate many of these studies. 35
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