Contents. Preface... xvii

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2 Contents Preface... xvii CHAPTER 1 Idealized Flow Machines Conservation Equations Conservation of mass Conservation of momentum Conservation of energy Flow Machines with No Heat Addition: The Propeller Zero heat addition with V e >V Zero heat addition with V e < V Zero heat addition with P ¼ constant > Propulsive efficiency Flow Machines with P ¼ 0 and Q ¼ Constant: The Turbojet, Ramjet, and Scramjet Heat addition, Q > Constant heat addition, Q ¼ constant > Overall efficiency Fuel efficiency Flow Machines with P ¼ 0, Q ¼ Constant, and A 0 ¼ 0: The Rocket The Special Case of Combined Heat and Power: The Turbofan Very small bypass ratio, b 1, the turbojet Very large bypass ratio, b [ 1, the turboprop Finite b, the turbofan Force Field for Air-Breathing Engines Conditions for Maximum Thrust Example: Jet and Rocket Engine Performance Jet engine performance Rocket engine performance Nomenclature Subscripts Exercises Reference CHAPTER 2 Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow Equations Introduction Equation of State Speed of Sound Mach Number Conservation of Mass Conservation of Energy v

3 vi Contents Thermodynamics of perfect gas mixtures Fuel air mixture Example: Heating Values for Different Fuel Oxidizer Combinations Conservation of Species Conservation of Momentum Impulse Function Stagnation Pressure Equations of Motion in Standard Form Example: Flow in a Duct with Friction Nomenclature Subscripts Superscripts Exercises References CHAPTER 3 Idealized Cycle Analysis of Jet Propulsion Engines Introduction General Jet Engine Cycle Ideal Jet Engine Cycle Analysis Ideal Turbojet in Maximum Power Take-Off Inlet flow, stations Compressor flow, stations Combustor flow, stations Turbine flow, stations Nozzle flow, stations Turbojet thrust and fuel efficiency in take-off Real turbojet engine in take-off Ideal Turbojet in High Subsonic Cruise in the Stratosphere Inlet flow, stations Compressor flow, stations Combustor flow, stations Turbine flow, stations Nozzle flow, stations Turbojet thrust and fuel efficiency in cruise Real turbojet engine in subsonic cruise Ideal Turbojet in Supersonic Cruise in the Stratosphere Inlet flow, stations Compressor flow, stations Combustor flow, stations Turbine flow, stations Afterburner flow, stations 5-5b Nozzle flow, stations 5b Turbojet thrust and fuel efficiency in supersonic cruise Real turbojet engine in supersonic cruise... 82

4 Contents vii 3.7 Ideal Ramjet in High Supersonic Cruise in the Stratosphere Inlet flow, stations 0-2, Combustor flow, stations 2,3-4, Nozzle flow, stations 4, Ramjet thrust and fuel efficiency in high supersonic cruise Real ramjet in high supersonic cruise Ideal Turbofan in Maximum Power Take-Off Inlet flow, stations Compressor flow, stations Fan flow, stations 2-3F Combustor flow, stations Turbine flow, stations Nozzle flow, stations Turbofan thrust and fuel efficiency in take-off Real turbofan engine in take-off Ideal Turbofan in High Subsonic Cruise in the Stratosphere Inlet flow, stations Compressor flow, stations Fan flow, stations 2-3F Combustor flow, stations Turbine flow, stations Nozzle flow, stations Turbofan thrust and fuel efficiency in cruise Real turbofan in high subsonic cruise Ideal Internal Turbofan in Supersonic Cruise in the Stratosphere Inlet flow, stations Compressor flow, stations Fan flow, stations 2-5F Combustor flow, stations Turbine flow, stations Afterburner flow, stations 5-5AB Nozzle flow, stations 5AB Turbofan thrust and fuel efficiency in supersonic cruise Real internal turbofan in supersonic cruise Real Engine Operations Inlet operation Compressor and fan operation Combustor and afterburner operation Turbine operations Nozzle operations Nomenclature Subscripts Exercises References

5 viii Contents CHAPTER 4 Combustion Chambers for Air-Breathing Engines Combustion Chamber Attributes Modeling the Chemical Energy Release Constant Area Combustors Example: Constant Area Combustor Constant Pressure Combustors Fuels for Air-Breathing Engines Combustor Efficiency Combustor Configuration Example: Secondary Air for Cooling Criteria for Equilibrium in Chemical Reactions Calculation of Equilibrium Compositions Example: Homogeneous Reactions with a Direct Solution Example: Homogeneous Reactions with Trial-and-Error Solution Example: Estimation of Importance of Neglected Product Species Adiabatic Flame Temperature Example: Adiabatic Flame Temperature for Stoichiometric H 2 O 2 Mixture Nomenclature Subscripts Superscripts Exercises References CHAPTER 5 Nozzles Nozzle Characteristics and Simplifying Assumptions Frictional effects Drag effects Energy transfer effects Flow in a Nozzle with Simple Area Change Mass Flow in an Isentropic Nozzle Nozzle Operation Normal Shock inside the Nozzle Example: Shock in Nozzle Two-Dimensional Considerations in Nozzle Flows Example: Overexpanded Nozzles Example: Underexpanded Nozzles Afterburning for Increased Thrust Nozzle Configurations Geometry requirements Simple ejector theory Ejector application to high-performance aircraft Convergent divergent iris nozzle Thrust-vectoring nozzles

6 Contents ix 5.12 Nozzle Performance Nomenclature Subscripts Superscripts Exercises References CHAPTER 6 Inlets Inlet Operation Inlet Mass Flow Performance Inlet Pressure Performance Subsonic Inlets Normal Shock Inlets in Supersonic Flight Internal Compression Inlets Internal Compression Inlet Operation Example: Internal Compression Inlet Additive Drag External Compression Inlets Example: External Compression Inlet Mixed Compression Inlets Hypersonic Flight Considerations Nomenclature Subscripts Superscripts Exercises References CHAPTER 7 Turbomachinery Thermodynamic Analysis of a Compressor and a Turbine Compressor thermodynamics Turbine thermodynamics Units used in compressors and turbines Energy Transfer between a Fluid and a Rotor Velocity components and work in turbomachines The Centrifugal Compressor Axial entry centrifugal compressor Example: Centrifugal compressor Pressure coefficient Effects due to number and shape of blades Guide vanes, diffusers, and volutes Centrifugal Compressors, Radial Turbines, and Jet Engines Axial Flow Compressor Velocity diagrams Pressure rise through axial flow compressor stages

7 x Contents Types of compressor stages Compressor stages Example: Axial compressor stages Polytropic efficiency of adiabatic expansion Axial Flow Turbine Velocity diagrams Pressure drop through axial flow turbine stages Example: Turbine pressure drop Types of turbine stages Axial Flow Compressor and Turbine Performance Maps General aerodynamic considerations Turbine performance maps Compressor maps Three-Dimensional Considerations in Axial Flow Turbomachines Nomenclature Subscripts Superscripts Exercises CHAPTER 8 Blade Element Theory for Axial Flow Turbomachines Cascades Straight Cascades Elemental Blade Forces Elemental Blade Power Degree of Reaction and Pressure Coefficient Nondimensional Combined Velocity Diagram Adiabatic Efficiency Secondary Flow Losses in Blade Passages Blade Loading and Separation Characteristics of Blade Pressure Field Critical Mach Number Linearized Subsonic Compressible Flow Plane Compressible Flow Turbine Blade Heat Transfer Boundary layer over the turbine blade General heat transfer effects in the blade passage Similarity parameters in heat transfer Flat plate blade heat transfer Heat transfer mechanisms in turbine passages Turbine blade cooling Turbine blade materials Nomenclature Subscripts Superscripts

8 Contents xi 8.16 Exercises References CHAPTER 9 Turbine Engine Performance and Component Integration Turbojet and Turbofan Engine Configurations Single-shaft turbojet Dual-shaft turbojet Dual-shaft internally mixed turbofan Dual-shaft low bypass turbofan Dual-shaft high bypass turbofan Dual-shaft afterburning turbojet Operational Requirements Compressor Turbine Matching Case 1: Nozzle Minimum Area and Combustor Exit Stagnation Temperature Specified Compressor Turbine Matching Case 2: Mass Flow Rate and Engine Speed Specified Inlet Engine Matching Inlet capture area Internal compression shock position effects External compression inlet installation Example: Basic Compressor Turbine Matching Thrust Monitoring and Control in Flight Fuel Delivery Systems Thrust Reversers Estimating Thrust and Specific Fuel Consumption in Cruise Engine Cost Loads on Turbomachinery Components Nomenclature Subscripts Exercises References CHAPTER 10 Propellers Classical Momentum Theory Blade Element Theory Propeller Charts and Empirical Methods The Variable Speed Propeller Propeller Performance Calculation of the performance of a specified propeller Selecting a propeller Example: Propeller Selection Ducted Propellers Turboprops

9 xii Contents 10.9 Nomenclature Subscripts Superscripts Exercises References CHAPTER 11 Liquid Rockets Liquid Rocket Motors Liquid rocket nozzles Conical nozzle Bell nozzle Plug nozzle Extendable nozzle Discharge coefficient Nozzle coefficient Nozzle efficiency Nozzle thrust coefficient Specific Impulse Example: Rocket Performance Combustion Chambers Propellant injectors Liquid Rocket Motor Operational Considerations Rocket nozzle heat transfer Nozzle and chamber cooling Combustion instabilities Thrust vector control Flight environment effects Rocket Propellants The H 2 O 2 propellant combination Cryogenic propellants Hypergolic propellants Rocket Characteristics Propellant Tank and Feed System Design Propellant tank characteristics Tank structural analysis Tank weight Propellant feed systems Nomenclature Subscripts Superscript Exercises References

10 Contents xiii CHAPTER 12 Solid Propellant Rockets Solid Rocket Description Solid Propellant Grain Configurations Homogeneous propellant Heterogeneous or composite propellant Grain cross sections Burning Rate Grain Design for Thrust-Time Tailoring Combustion Chamber Pressure Mass conservation analysis Equilibrium chamber pressure Combustion chamber stability Propellant performance sensitivity Erosive Burning Solid Rocket Performance Large-scale solid rocket motor Dual-thrust rocket motors Solid rocket motor casings Transient Operations Initial pressure rise Local equilibrium pressure variation Final pressure drop Example: Tubular Grain Rocket Motor Nozzle Heat Transfer Heat sink nozzles Melting ablator nozzles with constant heat transfer Mass transfer for nozzle thermal protection Hybrid Rockets Hybrid rocket operation Hybrid rocket characteristics Example: Hybrid rocket motor fuel grain design Nomenclature Subscripts Superscripts Exercises References CHAPTER 13 Nuclear Rockets Nuclear Rockets for Space Exploration Nuclear Rocket Engine Configuration Exhaust Velocity Nuclear Reactors Nuclear Reactions

11 xiv Contents 13.6 Reactor Operation Fuels for Nuclear Propulsion and Power Nuclear Rocket Performance Solid core reactors Particle bed reactors Propellant feed systems Comparison of nuclear and chemical rockets Gas Core Nuclear Rockets Base bleed fuel confinement Nuclear Ramjets A nuclear ramjet for planetary exploration Nomenclature Exercises References CHAPTER 14 Space Propulsion Space Propulsion Systems Electric Propulsion Systems Electrothermal Propulsion Devices Resistojets Arcjets Radio-frequency and microwave excited jets Electrostatic Propulsion Devices One-dimensional electrostatic thruster Ion stream speed Electric field and ion current Performance implications Surface contact source of ions Example: Surface contact source dimensions Electron bombardment source of ions Hall thruster An ion rocket for a deep space mission Electromagnetic Propulsion Devices Pulsed plasma thrusters Nomenclature Subscripts Exercises References CHAPTER 15 Propulsion Aspects of High-Speed Flight Flight Time Flight Productivity

12 Contents xv 15.3 Fuel Burn Flight Range References Appendix A Shock Waves, Expansions, Tables and Charts Appendix B Properties of Hydrocarbon Fuel Combustion Appendix C Earth s Atmosphere Appendix D Boost Phase and Staging of Rockets Appendix E Safety, Reliability, and Risk Assessment Appendix F Aircraft Performance Appendix G Thermodynamic Properties of Selected Species Index