The problematic art of counting

Transcription

1 The problematic art of counting Ragni Piene SMC Stockholm November 16, 2011

2 Mikael Passare

3 A (very) short history of counting: tokens

4 and so on...

5 Partitions Let n be a positive integer. In how many ways p(n) can we write n as a sum of positive integers? 1 = 1 2 = 2 = = 3 = = = 4 = = = =

6 A partition of 7

7 Partitions Let n be a positive integer. In how many ways p(n) can we write n as a sum of positive integers? 1 = 1 2 = 2 = = 3 = = = 4 = = = = p(1) = 1 p(2) = 2 p(3) = 3 p(4) = 5 A closed formula for p(n)?

8 The partition function Consider the infinite product (1 + q + q 2 + )(1 + q 2 + q 4 + ) (1 + q m + q 2m + ) Expanding and taking the coefficient of q n gives us p(n). Conclude: Let p(n) denote the number of ways we can write n = n 1 + n , where n 1 n 2 > 0. Let f(q) := p(n)q n denote the generating function of the p(n) s. Then f(q) = (1 + q m + q 2m + q 3m + ) = q m 1 m 1(1 m ) 1. The function f(q) displays the integer sequence 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 15, 22, 30, 42, 55, 77, 101,...

9 Generating function A generating function is a clothesline on which we hang up a sequence of numbers for display. H.S.Wilf generatingfunctionology Academic Press Inc., 1990

10 Plane partitions Consider next the number of plane partitions π(n): π(1) = 1 π(2) = 3 2, 1 1, π(3) = 6 3, 2 1, , 1 1, 1 1 1, The generating function for the π(n) is the MacMahon function: M(q) = π(n)q n = m 1 (1 q m ) m

11 Modulo q 4 : M(q) (1 + q + q 2 + q 3 )(1 + q 2 ) 2 (1 + q 3 ) q + q 2 + 2q 2 + q 3 + q 2q 2 + 3q 3 q 1 1 q 2 2 1, z 2q and 1 1 1, y and 1, x q 3 3 1, z, z 2 q 2q and 2 1 1, z, y and 1, z, x 3q , 1 1 1, , y, y 2, 1, x, y, 1, x, x 2

12 A plane partition of , z, z2, z 3, z 4, y, yz, yz 2, yz 3, y 2, y 2 z, y 3, y 4, x, xz, xz 2, x 2, x 2 z, xy, xyz, x 2 z

13 Donaldson Thomas and MacMahon A plane partition of n can be viewed as a set of n monomials in three variables such that all the other monomials generate an ideal in C[x, y, z]. Hence the integer π(n) counts the number of monomial ideals in C[x, y, z] of colength n. These correspond to the colength n ideals that are invariant under the torus action, or to the length n fixed points of C 3 under the torus action. This is the virtual count of the degree zero Donaldson Thomas invariants: DT 0 (C 3 )(q) = M( q) = m 1 (1 ( q) m ) m

14 Lattice polytopes Let P be a lattice polytope and consider the dilated polytopes kp. #P Z 2 = 11

15 Dilated polytopes #kp Z 2 =? (Thanks to Benjamin J. Braun for the figure.)

16 Ehrhart polynomials The number of lattice point in the kth dilation of P, f P (k) = #kp Z n is a polynomial of degree n = dim P. Reciprocity: f P ( k) = ( 1) n #int(kp ) Z n Why? If (X, L) is the toric variety determined by P, then f P (k) = χ(kl) = H 0 (X, kl) f P ( k) = χ( kl) = ( 1) n χ(kl K X ) = ( 1) n H 0 (X, kl K X ).

17 Ehrhart series The generating function of the Ehrhart polynomials is F P (t) = n f P (k)t k i=0 = h it i (1 t) n+1. where the h i are non-negative integers such that h 0 = 1 and n i=0 h i = Vol Z (P ), h 1 = #P Z n (n + 1), h n = #intp Z n. In the example, we get hence (exercise!) F P (t) = 1 + 8t + 4t2 (1 t) 3 f P (k) = #kp Z 2 = 13 2 k k + 1.

18 The numbers C n Define numbers C n recursively by C 0 := 1 and C n+1 = n C i C n i, i=0 The generating function C(q) := n=0 C n q n satisfies hence is equal to q C(q) 2 C(q) + 1 = 0, C(q) = 1 1 4q. 2q From this one deduces that C n = 1 2( 1 2 n + 1 is the nth Catalan number! ) 4 n+1 = 1 n + 1 ( ) 2n n

19 The Catalan numbers count: The number of ways to insert n pairs of parentheses in a word of n + 1 letters. For n = 3 there are 5 ways: ((ab)(cd)), (((ab)c)d), ((a(bc))d), (a((bc)d)), (a(b(cd))). The ways of joining 2n points on a circle to form n nonintersecting chords. The number of ways to triangulate a regular (n + 2)-gon. For n = 4 there are 14 ways:

20 Schubert calculus How many lines intersect four given lines in P 3? Degenerate the four lines to two pairs of intersecting lines. Then the line through the two points of intersection, and the line which is the intersection of the two planes are the lines meeting all four lines the answer is 2. How many lines meet six given planes in P 4? The answer is 5. How many lines meet 2n given (n 1)-planes in P n+1? The answer is the Catalan number C n = 1 n+1( 2n n ). The function C(q) = 1 1 4q 2q displays the sequence 1, 2, 5, 14, 42, 132, 429, 1430, 4862, 16796,...

21 Plane curves A plane curve of degree d is given as the set of zeros of a (homogeneous) polynomial F (y 0, y 1, y 2 ) in three variables of degree d. The curve on the left is a conic (d = 2). It is a rational curve (it has genus 0). The one to the right is a cubic (d = 3). It is elliptic (it has genus 1).

22 Storm P. on H.G. Zeuthen (1946) What is it about? It is about the theory of algebraic curves and surfaces, from which enumerative geometry originated!

23 Counting plane curves The space of all curves of degree d in P 2 is a projective space of dimension ( ) d The rational curves are those which have ( ) d 1 2 singular points. They form a sub- space of dimension 3d 1. Problem: Find the number N d of plane rational curves of degree d passing through 3d 1 points. Kontsevich s recursion formula: N d = ( ) ( N d1 N d2 d 2 3d 4 1 d 2 2 3d 1 2 d 1 +d 2 =d What is the generating function N d q d =?? ( ) 3d 4 ) d 3 1d 2 3d 1 1

24 To display on the clothesline:

25 ... this sequence of numbers: N 1 = 1 N 2 = 1 N 3 = 12 N 4 = 620 N 5 = N 6 = N 7 = N 8 = N 9 = N 10 = N 11 = N 12 =

26 K3 and the partition function Let S be a K3 surface (e.g., S P 3 is a quartic surface) and C S a curve. The rational (genus 0) curves in the linear system C are the curves with r := (C 2 + 2)/2 singularities. Their number, N r, is independent of S and C. Yau Zaslow: The generating function is r=0 N r q r = m 1 (1 qm ) 24 = ( p(n)q n ) 24 = f(n) 24. Geometric reason (Bryan Leung): The Euler number c 2 (S) is 24, and S can be degenerated (in symplectic geometry) to an elliptic fibration over P 1 with 24 singular (hence rational) fibers. There are p(j i ) degree j i maps from a stable rational curve (a bunch of P 1 s) to a singular fiber, hence n r = j 1 + +j 24 =r p(j 1) p(j 24 ).

27 Bell numbers The Stirling numbers S n,k count the number of partitions of a set with n elements into k blocks. The Bell numbers count all partitions: B n = n k=1 S n,k. They can be defined recursively: B 0 = 1 and B n+1 = n i=0 ( n i) Bi Their exponential generating function B(q) := n=0 B n q n /n! satisfies the differential equation and hence B (q) B(q) = eq, B(q) = e eq 1.

28 Bell polynomials The partial Bell polynomials are B n,k (a 1,..., a n k+1 ) = ( ) n j 1 j n k+1 ( a 1 1! ) j1 ( a n k+1 summing over (j) n, j i = k. The complete (exponential) Bell polynomials are B n (a 1,..., a n ) = n k=1 B n,k(a 1,..., a n k+1 ). (n k+1)! )j n k+1, B 1 (a 1 ) = a 1, B 2 (a 1, a 2 ) = a a 2, B 3 (a 1, a 2, a 3 ) = a a 1 a 2 + a 3 B 4 (a 1, a 2, a 3, a 4 ) = a a 2 1a 2 + 4a 1 a 3 + 3a a 4

29 Recursive definition The Bell polynomials can be defined recursively: B 0 = 1 n ( ) n B n+1 (a 1,..., a n+1 ) = B n i (a 1,..., a n i )a i+1 i or by the formal identity i=0 i 0 B i(a 1,..., a i )q i /i! = exp ( j 1 a jq j /j! ). Note that S n,k = B n,k (1,..., 1) and B n = B n (1,..., 1).

30 Faà di Bruno s formula Let h(t) = f(g(t)) be a composed function. Differentiate once: h (t) = f (g(t))g (t) and twice: h (t) = f (g(t))g (t) 2 + f (t)g (t). Set h i = h (i) (t), f i = f (i) (g(t)), g i = g (i) (t). Then h 1 = f 1 g 1 h 2 = f 2 g f 1 g 2 h 3 = f 3 g f 2 g 1 g 2 + f 1 g 3 and indeed h n = n k=1 f k B n,k (g 1,..., g n k+1 )

31 Göttsche s conjectures Let S be a smooth, projective surface, L a line bundle, m = L 2, k = K S L, s = K 2 S, x = c 2(S) the four Chern numbers. An r-nodal curve is a curve with precisely r ordinary double points. Let N r denote the number of r-nodal curves in the linear system L passing through the appropriate number of points on S. Göttsche conjectured: Nr q r = A m 1 A k 2A s 3A x 4, where the A i = A i (q) are (known and unknown) universal power series. Proved in 2010 by Tzeng and by Kool Shende Thomas.

32 Bell polynomials and nodal curves From Göttsche s conjecture it follows (Qviller) that there exist universal linear polynomials a 1, a 2,... in four variables, such that Nr q r = B r (a 1 (m, k, s, x),..., a r (m, k, s, x))/r! q r where B r is the rth Bell polynomial. Proved by Kleiman P. for r 8, together with an algorithm to compute the a i. Note that there are three aspects: shape of generating function explicit computation validity of the formulas

33 Why Bell polynomials? A recursive formula for N r fits with the Bell polynomials (reminiscent of derivations like in the Faà di Bruno formula). An intersection theoretic approach on the configuration space S r, shows that each a i comes from an intersection class supported on a diagonal, and each product of a i s to a class on a corresponding polydiagonal (Qviller). The advantage of knowing the Bell form of the node polynomials N r is that in order to compute N r+1 from the previous N i s one only needs to compute one new term, a r+1 : N r+1 = 1 (r + 1)! r 1 i=0 ( ) r (r i)!n r i a i+1 + i 1 (r + 1)! a r+1

34 The recursion Express the number of r-nodal curves in terms of (r 1)-nodal and lower. Blow up the surface to get rid of one node in each curve, then use the formula for (r 1)-nodal curves on the blown up surface and push it down.this creates a derivation formula of the form ru r = u r 1 u 1 + (u r 1 ) or r!u r = (r 1)!u r 1 u 1 + ((r 1)!u r 1 ) Set a 1 = u 1 and a 2 = (a 1 ). Then 2!u 2 = a a 2 and, pretendig is a derivation: 3!u 3 = (a a 2 )a 1 + (a a 2 ) = a a 1 a 2 + 2a 1 a 2 + a 3.

35 Polydiagonals Let X be a space, and consider X n = X X = {(x 1,..., x n ) x i X}. For each k n and each partition i k of {1, 2,..., n} into k disjoint subsets {i j 1, ij 2,..., ij l(j) }, j = 1,..., k, l(j) = n, the corresponding polydiagonal is defined as (i k ) = {(x 1,..., x n ) x i j r = x i j s for all r, s, j}. Then #{ (i k )} = S n,k, and B n = # n k=1 { (i k)} is the number of all polydiagonals in X n, and there are n! ( 1 ) j1 ( 1 ) jn j 1! j n! 1! n! polydiagonals of each type (j i = #blocks of i elements).

36 Example n = 4, k = 2, i 2 : {1}, {2, 3, 4}; {2}, {1, 3, 4}; {3}, {1, 2, 4}; {4}, {1, 2, 3}; {1, 2}, {3, 4}; {1, 3}, {2, 4}; {1, 4}, {2, 3}. There are 4! 1!1! ( 1 1! )1 ( 1 3! )1 = 4 of the first type, and 4! 2! ( 1 2! )2 = 3 of the second type.

37 Thank you for your attention!