An Exploratory Study of the Relationship between Counselor Trainee's Implicit and Explicit Personality Theory
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1 Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College An Exploratory Study of the Relationship between Counselor Trainee's Implicit and Explicit Personality Theory E. G. Frizzell Western Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: Part of the Counseling Commons, and the Student Counseling and Personnel Services Commons Recommended Citation Frizzell, E. G., "An Exploratory Study of the Relationship between Counselor Trainee's Implicit and Explicit Personality Theory" (1976). Dissertations This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact
2 AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COUNSELOR TRAINEE'S IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT PERSONALITY THEORY By E. G. F r i z z e l l A D i s s e r ta tio n S u b m itte d t o th e F a c u lty o f The G rad u ate C o lle g e i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e Degree o f D octor of E ducation W e ste rn M ich ig an U n iv e r s ity K alam azoc, M ich ig an D ecem ber 19?6
3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I d e n t i f y i n g th e p e r s o n s who d e s e rv e th e ack n o w led g em en ts f o r t h e c o m p le tio n o f t h i s t a s k g iv e s me u n to ld s a t i s f a c t i o n. T h ese p e r s o n s h av e s p e c ia l m ea n in g f o r m e. Some o f them a r e p o s s ib ly una w are o f th e s p e c ia l s i g n if i c a n c e th e y h o ld. T h a t i s, t h e i r c h a r a c t e r, t h e i r lo v e, t h e i r e n c o u ra g e m e n t, t h e i r s ta te m e n ts an d comments when m ade, p o s s ib ly i n s i t u a t i o n s t h a t a p p e a re d o f l i t t l e co n se q u en ce to them, provided th e m o tivation fo r th is achievem ent. T h ese c r e d i t e d p e r s o n s a r e m e n tio n e d w ith o u t t i t l e, some by f i r s t name o n ly an d i n no s p e c i a l o r d e r o t h e r th a n th e tim e proxim ity o f t h e ir emergence in to my developm ent. The m a g n itu d e o f my m o th e r 's i n f lu e n c e i s w ith o u t m e a su re. H er own p e r s o n a l g o a ls w ere a f f e c t i o n a t e l y s a c r i f i c e d an d re c h a n n e lle d in t o p r o v id in g d i r e c t i o n a n d g ro w th f o r h e r c h i l d r e n. H e r su b se q u e n t m arriage to "Doc augmented th e p rocess as h is wisdom and h is uns e lfis h reso u rces were blended w ith h ers. My co m m itte e c h a irm a n. Bob B e tz, h a s p ro v id e d me w ith m ore th a n academ ic counsel. H is personhood, a unique com bination o f p h ilo so p h y, i n t e l l e c t, e t h i c s, g o a l s, p r o f e s s io n a lis m an d h i s s e n s i t i v i t y a n d s u p p o r t o f my own v a lu in g h a s p ro v id e d th e m odel t h a t g iv e s d e f i n i t i o n f o r my s t r i v i n g. H erb S m ith 's f r ie n d s h ip a l s o g o es beyond m e re ly a n ac ad e m ic r e l a t i o n s h i p. H is l o y a l d e d ic a tio n to th e p r i n c i p l e o f e x c e lle n c e n o t o n ly d e s c r ib e s h i s a c ad e m ic w ork, b u t a ls o m ore s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i s c h a r a c t e r a s a p e r s o n a n d in tim a te
4 f r i e n d. B o t O sw ald h a s a l s o p ro v id e d me w ith c o g n itiv e s t im u l a t i o n and a keen in te re s t in th e development and re s u lts o f my d is s e rta t i o n t o p i c. I n a d d i t i o n to th o s e m e n tio n e d ab o v e, I am g r a t e f u l l y in d e b te d to th e D e p artm en t a s a w hole f o r i t s f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e an d th e i n te r p e r s o n a l w arm th o f i t s le a d e r s h i p, f a c u l t y an d s t a f f. A v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t e le m e n t o f my m ost r e c e n t d e v e lo p m e n t i s a t t r i b u t e d to Doug B locksm a, Tom D u th le r and Don H offm an, my i n t e r n a d v is o r s. The q u a l i t y o f t h e i r p r o f e s s io n a lis m, t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e and s u p p o r t, an d th e c o lle a g u e r e la t io n s h i p th e y p ro v id e d me augm ented my p ersonal and p ro fessio n al grow th. A few o t h e r s p e c ia l p e r s o n s d e s e rv e m en tio n a t t h i s p o i n t. W ith in th e f a m ily c o n te x t my U ncle H arv i s more d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to t h i s acco m p lish m e n t th a n he i s m ost l i k e l y aw are. H is own l i f e g o a ls had t h e i r r e v e r b e r a t i n g e f f e c t th ro u g h o u t th e f a m ily to su ch a degree th a t an observing nephew wanted to someday m erit th e v alu ing tones and adm iration w ith which he was freq u en tly spoken o f. T here was a l s o a n o c c a s io n d u r in g my a d o le sc e n c e w h ile in th e p re s e n c e o f my G r e a t A unt D o t, I m en tio n ed th e d e s i r e t o p u rc h a s e a c a r. H e r s a g e a d v ic e d e l i v e r e d in th e to n e o f a m a tr ia r c h a l re p rim an d w as, " D o n 't be f o o l i s h. P u t y o u r in v e s tm e n t i n y o u r h e a d. No one can ta k e t h a t from y o u." She was r i g h t. One o f my roommates, M arion W heeler, J r., challenged my th in k in g in no s m a ll f a s h io n a s we sh a re d f a n ta c i e s o f a c h ie v e m e n t and d is c u s s e d t o p i c s o f p e r s o n a l in tim a c y and d e p th. B a rb a ra Ann Dambach deserves more than a p p recia tio n fo r her su p p o rt,
5 encouragem ent and c r i t i c a l re v ie w o f th e m a t e r ia l. My th a n k s i s a ls o ex te n d ed to S h a ro n F l i c k in g e r f o r h e r ty p in g co m p lete d on r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t n o t i c e. My w ife, V i, has tee n w ith me in th is e ffo rt from i t s beginn in g. I t is to her and our two sons to whom th is is ded icated. E. G. F r i z z e l l
6 To my w if e, V i and o u r two s o n s, M a tt an d C h ris
7 INFORMATION TO USERS This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original docum ent. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce tiiis docum ent have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the docum ent photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication th a t the photographer suspected th at the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite m ethod in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing a t the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The m ajority of users indicate th at the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as University Microfilms International 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan USA St. John s Road. Tyler's Green High Wycombe, Bucks, England HP10 8HR
8 FRIZZELL, E. G., AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COUNSELOR TRAINEE'S IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT PERSONALITY THEORY. Western Michigan University, Ed.D., 1976 Education, guidance and counseling Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 4sio6
9 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I INTRODUCTION... 1 S ig n if ic a n c e o f th e P ro b le m... 7 S ta te m e n t o f th e P r o b l e m R eview o f R e la te d R e s e a rc h I I PROCEDURES... 3^ D e s c r ip tio n o f th e P o p u la tio n... D e s c r ip tio n o f th e I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n... P ro c e d u re s f o r C o lle c tio n o f D a ta... 3^ J6 4 l R e s e a rc h D e s ig n S t a t i s t i c a l P ro c e d u re s I I I ANALYSIS OF DATA IV SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS... 6? Summary... 6? D is c u s s io n an d C o n c lu sio n s...?1 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s an d I m p lic a tio n s F u r t h e r R e se a rc h... 85
10 LIST OF TABLES D e s c r ip tio n o f S u b je c ts by S ex. A ge, M a r it a l S ta t u s... 3^ D e s c r ip tio n o f S u b je c ts by U n d e rg ra d u a te M a jo r an d G rad u a te H o u r s D e s c r ip tio n o f S u b je c ts by Em ployment S ta t u s, Employment R ole, Emphasis in C ounseling P ro g ra m...» 35 P r e - T e s t P r e f e r r e d R esp o n se Mode by P o s t- T e s t P r e f e r r e d R esp o n se Mode f o r Group 1, Group 2, an d T o t a l G roup P r e - T e s t and P o s t- T e s t C o r r e la tio n s by U nderstanding, P robing, In te rp re ta tiv e, S u p p o r tiv e, E v a lu a tiv e f o r G roup P r e - T e s t an d P o s t- T e s t C o r r e la tio n s by U nderstanding, P robing, In te r p re ta tiv e, S u p p o r tiv e, E v a lu a tiv e f o r G roup 2... $0 P re - P o st- T est C o rre la tio n s by U nderstanding, P r o b in g, I n t e r p r e t a t i v e, S u p p o rtiv e, E v a lu a tiv e R esp o n se Modes f o r T o ta l Group E x p l i c i t T h e o r e t i c a l M odel by P r e - T e s t P re fe rre d and P o st- T est P referred Response Modes f o r G roup 1, Group 2, a n d T o ta l G ro u p P h ilo s o p h ic B e l i e f s by P r e f e r r e d P r e - T e s t and P re fe rre d P o st- T est Response Modes fo r Group 1, Group 2 an d T o ta l G ro u p P r e - T e s t Modes (U PlSE) by P r e - T e s t P r e f e r r e d R esp o n se Mode and P o s t- T e s t P r e f e r r e d R esponse Mode, P h ilo s o p h ic B e l i e f s, E x p l i c i t T h e o r e tic a l M odel, P h ilo s o p h ic a l C o u n se lin g O r ie n ta t io n f o r B o th G ro u p s P o s t- T e s t R esp o n se Modes (UPlSE) by P r e - T e s t P r e f e r r e d R esp o n se Mode an d P o s t- T e s t P r e f e r r e d R esp o n se Mode, P h ilo s o p h ic B e l i e f s, E x p l i c i t T h e o r e t i c a l M odel, P h ilo s o p h ic a l C o u n se lin g O r ie n ta t io n f o r T o ta l G roup... 56
11 LIST OF TABLES (continued) 12 P h ilo s o p h ic B e l i e f s hy E x p l i c i t T h e o r e t i c a l M odel and P h ilo s o p h ic a l C o u n s e lin g O r i e n t a t i o n Mean D if f e r e n c e s Betw een G roups hy P r e - T e s t and P o st- T est P referred Response Mode, P h ilo s o p h ic B e l i e f s, E x p l i c i t T h e o r e t i c a l M odel, P h ilo s o p h ic a l C o u n s e lin g O r ie n ta t io n C o rrelated Demographic D ata hy P re - T est R esp o n se Modes C o rrelated Demographic D ata hy P o st- T est R esp o n se M o d e s... 6 l 16 Demographic D ata hy P re - P o st- T est P re fe rre d R esp o n se M odes, P h ilo s o p h ic B e l i e f s, E x p l i c i t T h e o r e t i c a l M o d el, P h ilo s o p h ic a l C o u n s e lin g O r i e n t a t i o n Summairy o f S ig n i f i c a n t an d n o t S i g n i f i c a n t C o r r e la t io n s f o r H y p o th ese s hy G roup... 65
12 LIST OF APPENDICES PAGE APPENDIX A The H e lp in g R e la tio n s h ip I n v e n to r y (H R i) HRI A nsw er S h e e t... IO7 The Oswald S c a le o f R e lig io u s B e l i e f s (OSRB) The D em ographic I n f o r m a tio n S h e e t (D IS) I I 6 I n s t r u c ti o n s S h e e t - P r e - T e s t i n g... I I 9 I n s t r u c ti o n s S h e e t - P o s t- T e s tin g APPENDIX B S u b je c t C o n sen t F orm L e t t e r o f T hank Y o u ]
13 INTRODUCTION C o u n se lo rs and c o u n s e lo r e d u c a to r s hav e c o n s i s t e n t l y b ee n conc e rn e d w ith th e p ro c e ss by w h ich c o u n s e lo r s a r e p r e p a re d f o r fu n c tio n in g a t th e p r o f e s s io n a l l e v e l. F o r exam ple, S elig m a n an d B aldw in (1972) fo c u s on t r a i n i n g c o n s id e r a tio n s n e c e s s a r y f o r th e dev elo p m en t o f p r o f e s s io n a l c o u n s e lo r s. They n o te t h a t a t a tim e when th e r a p id ex p a n sio n o f human s e r v ic e s h a s s e n s i t i z e d o u r s o c ie ty to th e o p p o r tu n itie s f o r p e r s o n a l a s s i s t a n c e t h e r e i s g r e a t e r n eed fo r persons to provide such se rv ic e s. In ad d itio n, u n iv e rsity cu r r i c u l a r e m p h a sis in c o u n s e lin g h a s b ee n s u b s t a n t i a l l y in c r e a s e d so th a t the issu e of tra in in g has moved in to a phase o f ev alu atio n. W hile many f a c e ts o f c o u n s e lo r e d u c a tio n pro g ram s a r e c u r r e n t l y being evaluated, one area which is re ceiv in g a tte n tio n is th e teachin g o f in d iv id u a l c o u n s e lin g th e o r y an d te c h n iq u e. B io c h e r ( 1968) i d e n t i f i e d d e s c r i p t iv e ty p e s o f p ro g r a m a tic re s p o n s e modes w hich c h a r a c t e r i z e ap p ro ach e s in v o lv e d in th e te a c h in g o f c o u n s e lin g s k i l l s. He a d d r e s s e d th e n e c e s s ity f o r c o u n s e lo r e d u c a tio n program s to a s s i s t the counseling student w ith achieving an " in te g ra te d p a tte rn o f in te r p e r s o n a l b e h a v io r" (B io c h e r, 1968, p ). B lo c h e r l a b e ll e d one o f th e s e re s p o n s e modes th e I m m e d ia te - I n tu itiv e. The mode r e f e r r e d to th e c o u n s e lin g s t u d e n t 's p r e v io u s ly l e a r n e d, o r o v e r le a r n e d, w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s u s u a lly o p e r a tin g a t a low l e v e l o f c o n sc io u s a w a re n e s s. The se c o n d was th e C o g n itiv e - T h e o r e t i c a l. T h is re sp o n se mode was d e v e lo p e d i n th e d i d a c ti c 1
14 2 ( a s opposed to th e e x p e r i e n t i a l ) p o r tio n o f th e c o u n s e lo r e d u c a tio n pro g ram, an d i t s aim was to r e p la c e n a iv e c o g n itiv e c o n s t r u c t s w ith more p s y c h o lo g ic a lly s o p h i s tic a t e d o n e s. The c o g n i t i v e - t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew ork was d e s ig n e d to p ro v id e a means by w hich p e r c e p tio n s c o u ld be organized and meaning assigned to events. These th e o re tic a l cons t r u c t s w ere u sed to e x p la in c l i e n t o r c o u n s e lo r b e h a v io r s. I n summary, B locher s ta te d th a t th e counselor when faced w ith new in te r p e r s o n a l ta s k s m ust be a b le to draw upon p e r s o n a l r e s o u r c e s, i. e. in d iv id u a l r e s p o n s e m odes, w ith s u f f i c i e n t s k i l l in a s e l f - i n t e g r a t e d re p e rto ire to allow fu n ctio n in g as a helping person. A lso, focu sin g on th e idea of in teg ra tio n of the s e lf and couns e l i n g, R uble an d G rey ( I 9 68) s u g g e s t t h a t th e l i t e r a t u r e i s r e l a tiv e ly lim ited to stu d ie s by Rogers ( I 96I ), P atterso n (1964), C lark ( 1965), an d G y sb e rs an d Jo h n so n ( 1965). However, v a r io u s s t u d ie s have lo o k e d a t th e r o l e o f th e t h e r a p i s t in te rm s o f c o u n s e lo r p e r s o n a l i ty, th e o r y, p h ilo so p h y an d r e lig i o u s b e l i e f s. I n lo o k in g a t th e c o u n s e lo r 's p e r s o n a lity a s a v a r ia b l e in th e counseling re la tio n s h ip, v arious fa c e ts of such have been examined. K e ll and M e u lle r ( I 9 6 6, p. 6 6 ) i n lo o k in g a t th e " l i f e e x p e rie n c e " a s an ele m e n t o f th e c o u n s e lo r 's p e r s o n a l i ty s t a t e d, " u l tim a t e ly,.. we b e lie v e t h a t i t i s th e c o u n s e lo r 's own l i f e e x p e rie n c e w hich i s b o th th e g r e a t e s t a s s e t and th e g r e a t e s t o b s ta c le to h i s e f f o r t s to in d u c e change in h i s c l i e n t s. " R o g e rs ' i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c e r t a i n t h e r a p e u tic o r f a c i l i t a t i v e c o n d itio n s h as p ro d u c ed a n ab u n d an ce o f research by Rogers (1957) him self ; M artin, G arkhuff and Berenson ( 1966) ; Truax and G arkhuff ( I 965) ; H older, Garkhuff and Berenson
15 3 ( 1967) ; an d A lle n ( ). T ru a x and G a rk h u ff (1 9 5 ) fo u n d t h a t c o u n s e lo r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f w arm th, u n d e r s ta n d in g, a n d p o s i t i v e r e g a r d o r c a r in g c r e a t e c o n d itio n s f o r g r e a t e r c l i e n t s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n. T hese f a c i l i t a t i v e c o n d itio n s p ro v id e f o r g r e a t e r b e h a v io r change th a n i f th e y w ere n o t p r e s e n t in o p tim a l am o u n ts. T hey c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e problem i n c o u n s e lo r s e l e c t io n i s to f i n d m eans f o r a s s e s s in g th e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e l i a b l y. T ru a x ( , p. I 68 ) in d i c a t e d t h a t, "... th e (c o u n s e lo r ) t r a i n e e 's own i d i o s y n c r a ti c th e r a p e u t i c s e l f,... s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n and c o n se q u e n t i n t e g r a t i o n o f h i s d i d a c ti c t r a i n i n g w ith h i s p e r s o n a l v a lu e s, g o a ls, an d l i f e s t y l e " a r e p a r t s o f a c e n t r a l i t y o f e le m e n ts i n a t r a i n i n g a p p ro a c h to e d u c a tin g c o u n s e lo r s. F o rg y an d B la c k ( 195^ ) c o n firm th e a s s u m p tio n t h a t th e c o u n s e lo r 's p e r s o n a l i ty a n d c o u n s e lin g s t y l e a r e im p o r ta n t. T h e ir r e s e a r c h r e v e a le d t h a t couns e l i n g e f f e c t iv e n e s s was a n i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t b etw een c o u n s e lo r p e r s o n a l i ty an d m eth o d o lo g y, th o u g h n e i t h e r e x c lu s iv e ly p r e v a i l e d. I n o t h e r w o rd s, c o u n s e lo r p e r s o n a l i ty was com bined w ith c o u n s e lin g m ethods in o r d e r to f a c i l i t a t e c l i e n t ch a n g e. C o u n se lo r a t t i t u d e s t u d ie s l i k e th o s e o f P o r t e r ( 195O) have p ro v id e d i n s i g h t f u l r e s o u r c e s in to in fo rm a tio n a b o u t c o u n s e lo r p e r s o n a l i t i e s. P o r t e r d e v e lo p e d s c a le s w hich p u rp o r te d t o m ea su re c o u n s e lo r a t t i t u d e s to w a rd h y p o th e tic a l c o u n s e lin g s i t u a t i o n s w ith s u f f i c i e n t r e l i a b i l i t y to be u s e f u l in i d e n t i f y i n g c o u n s e lo r s w ith d i s t i n c t a t t i t u d i n a l o r i e n t a t i o n s. A l a t e r a d a p ta tio n an d u s e o f P o rte r 's instrum ent by Jones ( I 967) dem onstrated how counselors d if f e r e d from p e r s o n s i n o t h e r h e lp in g o c c u p a tio n s.
16 The c o u n s e lo r 's p e r s o n a l i ty h a s r e c e iv e d, a s th e ab o v e s t u d ie s i n d i c a t e, some a t t e n t i o n from w r it e r s an d r e s e a r c h e r s. A m a jo r p o r t i o n o f t h a t r e s e a r c h ex a m in in g th e c o u n s e lo r h a s f o c u s e d on f a c i l i t a t i v e c o n d itio n s an d th e r o l e th e y p la y i n th e c o u n s e lin g r e l a t i o n s h i p. H ow ever, M e ltz o f f and K o m r e ic h ( I 9 7 O, p. 402) i n su m m a rizin g th e r e s e a r c h on f a c i l i t a t i v e c o n d itio n s s t a t e, " I t w ould he a m istake to freez e th era p eu tic re search in p ro cess in to the curr e n t v e r s io n s o f th e s e f a c i l i t a t i v e c o n d itio n s when t h e r e s u l t s a r e ambiguous and much rem ains to be ex p lo re d." C o u n s e lin g th e o r y h a s a ls o b een e x t e n s i v e ly ex am in ed by v a r io u s w r i t e r s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s. R y ch lak (1973» P- 1 7 ) h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t an a t t i t u d e a b o u t th e a p p ro a c h to th e s tu d y o f c o u n s e lin g t h e o r i e s was im p o rta n t i n te rm s o f how th e s tu d e n t th o u g h t a b o u t t h e o r i e s. R a th e r th a n a p p r o a c h in g th e s tu d y an d a c q ^ u is itio n o f a t h e o r e t i c a l m odel i n te rm s o f th e q u e s tio n, "What i s t r u t h?, " he s u g g e s ts a m ore a p p r o p r i a t e q u e s tio n w ould b e, "How i s t h i s p e r s o n ( t h e o r i s t ) g o in g about the form u latin g what w ill be considered tru th? " Somewhat s a r c a s t i c a l l y, in com m enting on th e r o l e o f p e r s o n a l i ty th e o r y, B lo c h e r ( , p. 212) e x p r e s s e d t h a t c o u n s e lo r s d id n o t f u l l y t a k e a d v a n ta g e o f o t h e r r e s o u r c e s o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r i n c i p l e s an d p r a c t i c e s, w h ile r e ly i n g m ost h e a v ily upon p e r s o n a l i t y th e o r y a s " th e fo u n t a in h e a d o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l w isdom." A s s e r t in g m ore o f a f u n c ti o n a l f a c u l t y o f c o u n s e lin g th e o r y, Brammer an d S h o stro m ( 1968) e x p la in t h a t th e o r y o p e r a t i o n a l i z e s th e s c i e n t i f i c p r o c e s s, an d t h a t by im p le m e n tin g th e o r y, a fram ew ork i s p ro v id e d f o r m ak in g s y s te m a tic o b s e r v a tio n s.
17 I n a d d i t i o n, r e s e a r c h w h ich h a s been co n d u c ted w h e re in th e o r y was a v a r ia b l e u n d e r c o n s id e r a tio n shows t h a t c o n c lu s io n s v a ry a s to i t s e f f e c t upon th e c o u n s e lin g p r o c e s s. I n a stu d y by F i e d l e r (1950) wherein the fu n ctio n o f theory was examined in re la tio n to the conc e p t o f a n id e a l t h e r a p e u t i c r e la t io n s h i p, i t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e s k i l l o r e x p e r t i s e o f th e t h e r a p i s t had m ore b e a r in g upon th e r e la t io n s h i p th a n h i s t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a ti o n. I n s t u d i e s re v ie w e d by M e ltz o f f an d K o m r e ic h (1 9? 0 ) t h a t lo o k e d a t a p p ro a c h an d te c h n iq u e, i t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t g e n u in e d if f e r e n c e s c o u ld be a t t r i b u t e d to th e f u n c tio n o f th e " s c h o o l" o r th e o r y o f th e t h e r a p i s t. The c o n c e p t o f p h ilo s o p h ic a l o r i e n t a ti o n an d i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e o r y h a s b een d e a l t w ith by R ychlak ( ). A l l p o r t ( 1962), Brammer an d S h o stro m ( 1968), an d v a r io u s o th e r a u th o r s w r it i n g a b o u t c o u n s e lin g t h e o r i e s ( S t e f f i r e, 1965; S h e r tz e r an d S to n e, 197^; an d P a t t e r s o n, I 966). S h e r t z e r an d S to n e (1974) in t h e i r e x a m in a tio n o f c o u n s e lin g a p p io a c h e s in d i c a t e t h a t c o u n s e lo r s a r e e x p e c te d to be a b le to u se i n s i g h t s a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f man draw n from th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s an d e x p la n a tio n s p ro v id e d by c o u n s e lin g t h e o r i s t s re g a r d in g a c t i v i t y ta k in g p la c e i n c o u n s e lin g. I n a d d itio n, a p e r s o n a l p h i l osophy o f counseling i s d erived from the co u n se lo r 's s e lf understandin g, v iew s o f man, an d p e r s o n a l e x p e rie n c e. R ychlak (1973) u t i l i z e s an e x te n siv e developm ent an d ex p la n a t i o n o f p h ilo s o p h ic a l t h in k in g in a p p ro a c h in g th e co m p a riso n o f v a r io u s t h e o r e t i c a l m o d els f o r c o u n s e lin g. The c o u n s e lo r 's a n a l y s i s o f v a r io u s t h e o r i e s shows th e c lo s e r e la t io n s h i p and p h ilo s o p h ic a l b asis from which th e o re tic a l w ritin g has emerged. Not u n re la ted to
18 th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l em p h a sis i s th e th e o lo g ic a l u n d e r g ir d in g o f th e o r y d e v e lo p m e n t. R y c h la k ( , P* 19) s t a t e s, " T h e o r ie s o f man c o u ld... he tr a c e d to th e e a r l i e s t p h ilo s o p h ie s an d t h e o lo g ie s o f re c o rd e d h i s t o r y. F o r exam ple, a s p e c ts o f th e c o u n s e lin g p ro c e s s su ch a s a c c e p ta n c e, c a r in g, e t c. prom oted hy R o g e rs and o th e r C lie n t- c e n te r e d t h e r a p i s t s have d e e p e r p h ilo s o p h ic a l o r i g i n s em a n atin g from th e o r i g i n s o f th e A m erican S o c ie ty. Brammer and S hostrom ( 1968) i n d i c a t e t h a t th e q u a l i t y o f a c c e p ta n c e m a n ife s te d hy th e counselor is deeply ro oted in the American dem ocratic p h ilosophy -which i s h a se d s tr o n g ly in o u r H e h r a ic - C h r is tia n c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s. I t i s in d i c a t e d t h a t r e li g i o n and p h ilo so p h y in W e ste rn c i v i l i z a t i o n have f o s t e r e d th e em ergence o f a num ber o f b e lie fs which are more c o rre c tly described as a ttitu d e s than p o sit i o n s. I t i s f u r t h e r a s s e r t e d t h a t a system o f u n a r tic io la te d b e l i e f s, p o s i ti o n s, a t t i t u d e s, and v a lu e s in f lu e n c e th i n k in g, an d i t i s th e o lo g y an d p h ilo so p h y t h a t m ust be exam ined i n o r d e r to s e e w hat th e y a r e an d how th e y f u n c tio n. I n a d d itio n, a re v ie w r e l a t e d th e work o f s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s and r e v e a le d a c o n c e p t o f German d e r iv a t io n c a l le d th e W eltan ch au u n g ( a g iv e n i n t e l l e c t u a l atm o sp h ere o f a p a r t i c u l a r c e n tu r y and c u l t u r e ) w hich s t a t e s t h a t "... s e v e r a l th o u sa n d y e a rs o f p h ilo s o p h ic a l an d th e o lo g ic a l th o u g h t h a s (p ro d u ced ) a body o f a s s u m p tio n s - o f te n unspoken and n o t c o n s c io u s ly re a liz e d b e lie fs" ( S h ertz er and Stone, 19?4, p. 157). I n summary, in l i g h t o f th e above re v ie w i t may be t h a t th e unspoken, not consciously re a liz e d b e lie fs of the counseling s tu dent are considered s u ffic ie n tly im portant to ju s tif y an experim ental
19 i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o r r e l a t i n g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e c o u n s e lo r t r a i n e e s ' p h ilo s o p h ic a l n o tio n s w ith c h o ic e o f c o u n s e lin g th e o r y and s p e c if i e d c o u n s e lin g p h ilo s o p h ic a l o r i e n t a ti o n. S ig n if ic a n c e o f th e Problem Gardner (1964, p. 1? 0 ), follow ing an exhaustive review o f re la t i o n s h i p v a r ia b l e s r e g a r d in g id e a l t h e r a p i s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s an d t h e i r p o s i ti v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith c l i e n t p ira g re ss, n o te d t h a t "... r e s e a r c h s t i l l i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y d e f i n i t i v e on t h e r a p i s t f a c t o r s f o r c o n f id e n t c o u n s e lo r s e l e c t i o n. " Seeman (1 949) and F i e d l e r (1 956) exam ined c o u n s e lo r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d, a lth o u g h d e f i n i t i v e c o n c lu s io n s co u ld n o t be re a c h e d re g a r d in g c o u n s e lo r p e r s o n a l i ty, in d ic a te d t h e r e was f u r t h e r e v id e n c e to w a rra n t e x te n d e d e x a m in a tio n. The c o n c e rn s o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y a r e n o t c o u n s e lo r p e r s o n a l i ty d i r e c t l y n o r th e s p e c if i c f u n c tio n o f c o u n s e lo r s e l e c t io n w ith in c o u n s e lo r e d u c a tio n, b u t th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e s an d b e l i e f s w ith in c o u n s e lo r p e r s o n a l i ty. "One c o n s i s t e n t problem in c o u n s e lo r e d u c a tio n a p p e a rs t o be t h a t o f p ro m o tin g th e dev elo p m en t w ith th e s tu d e n ts o f a v a lu e system w hich w i l l a llo w them to d e m o n s tra te a c o n s i s t e n t s e l f w ith in th e c o u n s e lin g s i tu a t io n " (R u b le and G rey, 1968, p ). F o llo w in g t h i s l o g i c, th e p r e s e n t s tu d y i s c o n c e rn e d w ith th e d e g re e to w hich b e g in n in g c o u n s e lin g s tu d e n ts choose t h e o r e t i c a l c o u n s e lin g sy stem s o r m odels c o n s i s t e n t w ith q u a l i t i e s o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l i ty. I n te rm s o f t h e r a p e u t i c f u n c tio n, w h e th e r o r n o t p r o f e s s io n a l i d e n t i t y ( i. e. th e o re tic a l approach, e tc. ) or tra in in g has a bearing upon a counselor
20 i d e n t i t y h a s "been s tu d ie d hy o n ly a h a n d f u l o f r e s e a r c h e r s ( M e ltz o f f an d K o m re ic h, ). I n a fo llo w -u p on h i s own s tu d y F e i d l e r (1 950) re -e x a m in e d th e h y p o th e s is t h a t th e i d e a l t h e r a p e u tic r e l a t i o n s h i p i s d e te rm in e d m ore hy e x p e r t i s e th a n hy sc h o o l o r t h e o r e t i c a l a p p ro a c h. H is h y p o th e s is was s u p p o rte d, h u t th e f i n d in g was q u a l i f i e d in s o f a r a s th e e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a p p ro a c h was n o t e v a lu a te d, h u t th e e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f th e i n d iv id u a l w as. In a challenge of Fiedler s study, Behar and Altrocchi ( I 9 6I ), maintained that Fiedler did not take into consideration exposure to academic training, theories and practices, hut rather that he limited himself to only therapeutic experience. Behar and Altrocchi's study endorses the importance of the examination of theoretical approaches. Fiedler's initial study indicated that as a therapist becomes more experienced and more expert, the apparent influence of theoretical approach is reduced. For the experienced therapist it can he inferred that a sufficient amount of integration of theoretical knowledge becomes personalized hy the therapist so that obvious differences in counseling strategies hased on differing theoretical models are not discernible in terms of the ideal therapeutic relationship. Ruble and Grey ( 1968) were concerned with practicum students, not yet sufficiently experienced to he considered expert. Practices may occur which take place during the acquisition process that possibly reduce the value and the use of an acquired given or specific theoretical approach. The condition may he especially true if the acquired theory has facets which are alien to the user's basic attitude,
21 b e l i e f an d v a lu e sy ste m. I n a s tu d y by Demos an d Z u w a y lif (1962) r e g a r d in g c o u n s e lin g s u p e r v is io n, th e t h e o r e t i c a l m odel o f th e s u p e r v is o r an d t h a t o f th e s tu d e n t was o b s e r v e d. They d e te rm in e d t h a t c o u n s e lin g s u p e r v is o r s av o w in g a g iv e n t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n f e l t i t im p o s s ib le to c o n c e a l t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l p r e f e r e n c e i n a c lo s e i n te n s e p ra c tic u m r e l a t i o n s h ip w ith th e s t u d e n t. I t w as fo u n d t h a t c o u n s e lin g s u p e r v is o r s in f lu e n c e d t h e i r t r a i n e e s in a m anner c o in c id in g w ith t h e i r own t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h. The s tu d y a l s o d e m o n s tra te d t h a t s u p e r v is o r s who a tte m p te d to c o n c e a l t h e i r own t h e o r e t i c a l o r p h ilo s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n so a s to n o t u n d u ly i n f lu e n c e th e t r a i n e e w e re l e s s l i k e l y to r e in f o r c e one a p p ro a c h, n am e ly t h e i r own, to su c h a d e g r e e t h a t t r a i n e e s w ould u t i l i z e te c h n iq u e s n o t i n l i n e w ith t h e i r p e r s o n a l i ty, b a c k g ro u n d, a f f i n i t i e s, an d so f o r t h. The q u e s tio n r a i s e d by Damos a n d Z u w a y lif "Do th e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i ti o n s o f c o u n s e lo r e d u c a to r s h ave a n e f f e c t on t h e i r c o u n s e lo r t r a i n e e s? " was t o some d e g r e e p r o v o c a tiv e. They fo u n d t h a t a ty p e o f s u b t le i n d o c t r i n a t i o n ta k e s p la c e f o r s tu d e n ts a c c e p tin g c o u n s e lo r e d u c a t o r 's p e r s o n a l t h e o r e t i c a l b i a s e s. Relative to the functioning of theory in the counseling process, it has been assumed by various educators that counselor trainees and others interested in the helping professions operate under "built-in" theories or relatively fixed sets of assumptions about what human beings are like. Both Bullmer (1 975) and Steffire ( I 965) referred to this as a type of implicit personality theory. The concept of an individual's implicit personality theory is not new.
22 10 R y c h la k ( ) c i t e d A r i s t o t l e s r e f e r e n c e to a ty p e o f i m p l i c i t p e r s o n a l i ty th e o r y t h a t he c a l le d " f r e e th e o ry " o r " d i a l e c t i c " an d d i s tin g u i s h e d i t from e m p ir ic a lly b a se d th e o r y. R y ch lak r e f e r r e d to " in f o r m a l t h e o r i e s, " w h ich he s t a t e d w ere som etim es c o n c e a le d in c u l t u r a l s te r e o ty p e s ( a term u sed hy B u llm e r, 1975» to d e s c r ib e a n a t t r i b u t e o f i m p lic it p e r s o n a l i ty t h e o r y ). He w ent on to d e s c r ib e how a s te r e o ty p e i s lik e n e d to a " ty p o lo g y," i. e. a com m entary on th e to ta l complex of b eh avioral tendencies we c a ll " the person" ( p. 15). A ty p o lo g y he renam ed a " th e o r o ty p e." T h e o ro ty p e s a r e n o t h e ld a s r i g i d l y o r i g n o r a n tly a s s te r e o ty p e s, b u t have a way o f m oving in to a k in d o f " t r a i t t h e o r y." He f u r t h e r s t a t e d, "A re v ie w o f th e h i s t o r y o f p e r s o n a l i ty s tu d y m akes i t f a i r l y c l e a r t h a t th e u s u a l p r o g r e s s io n h as b een f o r th e o r y to move from ty p o lo g ie s to t r a i t t h e o r i e s " ( p. I 5 ). C o n s is te n t w ith R y c h la k, o t h e r w r it e r s have im p lie d i n r e l a t e d s ta te m e n ts th e im p o rta n c e o f th e s e l f an d th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e p e rs o n in th e u se an d c o n s tr u c tio n o f e x p l i c i t t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i ti o n s. S t e f f i r e ( , p. 3 & 26) s t i p u l a t e d, "One o f th e u n d e r ly in g s o u rc e s o f th e o r y i s th e p e r s o n a l n ee d s t r u c t u r e o f th e th e o r y b u i l d e r, " an d s e c o n d ly, "The c h a r a c t e r, th e g e n iu s, th e p e r s o n a l i ty o f th e th e o r y c o n s tr u c to r i s e x p r e s s e d in th e th e o r y he d e v e lo p s. T h ir d ly, he i d e n t i f i e d among o t h e r th in g s t h a t one o f th e s u b s ta n tiv e e le m e n ts o f a c o u n s e lin g th e o r y i s a ssu m p tio n s a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f man. S hoben ( 1962, p. 619) s u p p o rte d an d sum m arized th e fo r e g o in g s tip u la tio n s regarding counseling theory in th e follow ing way: "... s in c e th e r e i s no s u p e r io r th e o r y o v e r t h a t o f a n o th e r, in
23 11 c o u n s e lin g, we m ust lo o k w ith in th e c o u n s e lo r who u s e s a g iv e n th e o ry to d e te rm in e why h e i s a t t r a c t e d to th e p a r t i c u l a r o n e. N ot o n ly i s th e c o u n s e lo r 's p e rs o n fo und i n th e fo rm a l th e o ry h e /s h e d e v e lo p s, a d o p ts a n d /o r u s e s, q u i t e u n d e r s ta n d a b ly i t can a ls o be o s te n s ib ly i d e n t i f i e d i n th e in fo rm a l th e o r y im plem ented by th e l e s s s k i l l e d h e lp e r. I m p l i c i t p e r s o n a l i ty th e o r y, a s i t h a s been u sed in th e c i t e d r e f e r e n c e s, h a s b ee n p r o je c te d a s a l i a b i l i t y and a d e trim e n t t o e t f e c t i v e f u n c tio n in g in c o u n s e lin g. I t h a s been a s s o c ia te d by B u llm er ( ) w ith th e p ro c e s s o f in t e r p e r s o n a l p e r c e p tio n. A gain in i t s n e g a tiv e c o n te x t, th e p e r c e i v e r may, however e r ro n e o u s ly, be fo u n d ( a ) a tte m p tin g to c lo s e gap s in h is know ledge a b o u t a n o th e r p e r s o n ; (b ) a s s ig n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to a p e rso n by i n f e r r i n g i n n e r d i s p o s it i o n s from o b s e r v a b le a c tio n s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; and ( c ) a s c r i b i n g to o t h e r p e r s o n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t he s e e s h im s e lf p o s s e s s in g. T h ese a t t r i b u t e s o f i m p li c it p e r s o n a lity B u llm e r r e f e r s to a s s te r e o ty p in g, t r a i t a t t r i b u t i o n, an d assum ed s i m i l a r i t y, r e s p e c t i v e l y. T hese m ig h t a ls o be r e f e r r e d to as response modes o r techniques o f im p lic it p erso n ality theory. S h e r t z e r and S to n e ( l9 7 ^, p. 156) a ls o made r e f e r e n c e to a ty p e of im p lic it p erso n ality theo ry described as "... a system o f una r t i c u l a t e d b e l i e f s, p o s i t i o n s, a t t i t u d e s and v a lu e s w hich in f lu e n c e th in k in g.... " They in d i c a t e d t h a t a p e r s o n 's th e o lo g y o r p h i l osophy may g iv e some i n d i c a t i o n o f w hat c o n s t i t u te s h i s o r h e r i m p li c it p e r s o n a l i ty th e o r y. R y ch lak (1974) s i m i l a r l y commented t h a t one o f th e m o tiv e s f o r s tu d y in g p s y c h o th e ra p y i s e t h i c a l in nature w ith the term e th ic a l re la te d in c la s s ic a l philosophy to
24 th e o l o g i c a l c o n s id e r a tio n s. He f u r t h e r r e la t e d : Though m o ra l h a s b een u sed a s a t h e o l o g i c a l eq _ u iv a le n t o f e t h i c a l, i n common p r a c t i c e th e s e two te rm s a r e synonym ous. T h ere a r e u n d o u b te d ly many t h e r a p i s t s who p r a c t i c e p s y c h o th e ra p y o u t o f w hat can o n ly be c o n s id e r e d a n e t h i c a l i n t e r e s t. They see i n th e n a tu r e o f m e n ta l i l l n e s s a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e e t h i c a l i n j u s t i c e s... th e y f e e l t h a t... th e com ing t o g e t h e r o f two p e o p le i n a c e r t a i n way, a p r o p e r a t t i t u d e o f m u tu a l c o n c e rn... i s h e a l th f u l ( p. 1 8 ). A c c o rd in g ly th e n, o n e 's t h e o l o g i c a l, p h ilo s o p h ic a l o r e t h i c a l b e l i e f s, a t t i t u d e s, an d so f o r t h may a l s o be c o n s id e r e d an a t t r i b u t e o f t h e i r i m p li c it p e r s o n a l i ty th e o r y. A c c o rd in g to B u llm e r, su ch b e l i e f s and a t t r i b u t e s may be e x p r e s s e d how ever e f f e c t i v e l y o r i n e f f e c t i v e l y i n a m anner o f s t e r e o ty p in g, a t t r i b u t i n g t r a i t s, o r assu m in g s i m i l a r i t y. A g a in w ith re g a r d f o r th e n o tio n o f i m p li c it p e r s o n a l i ty th e o r y, R y ch lak (1 9 7 ^ ) c i t e s D e lo n g ( 196I ) i n a n e x p la n a tio n o f how a su b j e c t ' s " i n tr o s p e c t i v e " o r in fo rm a l th e o r y can em erge a s a s u s t a i n e r o f a n e x p e r im e n te r 's " e x tr a s p e c tiv e " o r fo rm a l th e o r y. He sa y s t h a t th e r e may be o c c a s io n to exam ine e m p ir ic a lly b a se d t h e o r i e s to d e te rm in e i f t h e r e i s n o t a n in fo rm a l th e o r y g o in g unnamed i n th e supposed fa c ts which support form al th e o rie s. A lth o u g h B u llm e r ( , P- 24) s t a t e d t h a t "... i m p li c it p e r s o n a l i ty th e o r y i s n o t s u b je c t to o b j e c ti v e v e r i f i c a t i o n...," a n e m p ir ic a l q u e s tio n e x i s t s. Thus th e p r e s e n t s tu d y i s a d d r e s s e d to i n v e s t i g a t i n g w h e th e r o r n o t th e m easurem ent o f i m p li c it p e r s o n a l i t y th e o r y i s p o s s i b le. A ssum ing t h a t o n e 's e t h i c a l, m o ra l o r t h e o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s can be m easu red, w h e th e r c o n s c io u s o r r e p r e s s e d ( F rankie, 1975)> th is study is designed to a sse ss the re la tio n s h ip.
25 13 if any, "between beginning counselors' measured religious beliefs and their mode of responding to hypothetical clients prior to a didactic treatment of theoretical models. Comparisons are also to be made with the counselors' mode of responding following didactic exposure, their choice of explicit theoretical model and their philosophical orientation. If the identification and recognition of such relationships can be made, it represents an important addition to the knowledge in the counselor training field and may assist counseling students with the selection and acquisition of their formal counseling theories, and could assist counselor educators "both in the didactic and practicum facets of teaching counselor functioning when modes of responding to clients and techniques appear to be ineffective and inconsistent with the theoretical model of choice. Statement of the Problem The present study therefore is concerned with the relationship between Master's level students' previously undefined approach to the counselor-client relationship and their resultant theoretical model following a course in counseling theories. A number of questions logically follow this concern: (a) Can the concept of an implicit personality theory be measured? (b) Will students respond differently in terms of choosing a defined theoretical approach to the counseling relationship if made aware of their implicit theoretical approach? (c) Will there be a relationship between the students' quasi theoretical approach and their subsequent consciously
26 i d e n t i f i e d m odel an d p h ilo s o p h ic a l o r i e n t a ti o n? Assumptions I n o r d e r to t e s t a s p e c ts o f t h e p r e v io u s ly s t a t e d p ro b le m, th e follow ing assum ptions are h eld. F ir s t, beginning counseling s tu d e n ts come in to c o u n s e lin g w ith n o tio n s a b o u t th e way to h e lp p e o p le th a t are a s s e s sib le in term s o f counselor a ttitu d e s tow ard hypotheti c a l c o u n s e lin g s i t u a t i o n s. S eco n d, P o r t e r 's ( ) an d J o n e s ( 1967) response modes (U nderstanding, P robing, In te rp re ta tiv e, Supp o rtiv e and E valu ativ e, UPISE) are in d ic a tio n s o f counseling tec h n iq u e s w h ich in e a r l i e r s t u d ie s ( S tr u p p, 1955) w ere p o l a r i z e d a s d i r e c t i v e v e r s u s n o n d ir e c tiv e. T h ir d, t h e n a tu r e o f o n e 's r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s c o n ta in p h ilo s o p h ic a l an d t h e o l o g i c a l n o tio n s r e g a r d in g th e n a tu r e o f m an. F o u r th, e x p l i c i t t h e o r e t i c a l m odels can be c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d in g to a p h ilo s o p h ic a l o r i e n t a t i o n su c h a s p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l, p sychoanalytic and b eh avioral. A ssum ing t h a t th e s e can be o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d and m e a su re d, th e n t h e f o llo w in g h y p o th e s e s may be d ed u c ed an d t e s t e d in h e lp in g to u n d e r s ta n d w hat r e l a t i o n s h i p, i f a n y, e x i s t s betw een a c o u n s e lo r 's p h ilo s o p h ic b e l i e f s an d o r i e n t a t i o n to w a rd s e m p ir ic a lly t e s t e d t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e ls. Hypotheses I n o r d e r t o m easu re th e M a s t e r 's l e v e l s t u d e n t s ' q u a s i th e o r e t i c a l a p p ro a c h to th e c o u n s e lin g r e l a t i o n s h i p, th e f o llo w in g h y p o th e s e s w i l l be t e s t e d.
27 15 T h e re i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een a t t i t u d e s h e ld by th e b e g in n in g c o u n s e lin g s tu d e n t n o t y e t f i n i s h e d w ith a b a s ic c o u rs e in c o u n s e lin g t h e o r i e s and th o s e a t t i t u d e s held follow ing com pletion o f th e course. Hg: There is a re la tio n s h ip between a ttitu d e s h eld by the b e g in n in g c o u n s e lin g s tu d e n t a n d th e e x p r e s s e d c h o ic e o f an e x p l i c i t t h e o r e t i c a l m odel. T h ere i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw e en p h ilo s o p h ic b e l i e f s an d a ttitu d e s held by th e beginning counseling stu d en t. T h e re i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw e en p h ilo s o p h ic b e l i e f s an d expressed choice o f an e x p lic it th e o re tic a l model. T h ere i s a d i f f e r e n c e b etw een two g ro u p s an d t h e i r c h o ic e s o f e x p l i c i t t h e o r e t i c a l m o d els when one i s in fo im e d o f t h e i r i m p lic it t h e o r e t i c a l te n d e n c ie s an d one i s n o t inform ed. D e f i n it i o n o f te rm s F or purposes of th is study, th e follow ing d e fin itio n s apply : 1. B e g in n in g c o u n s e lin g s tu d e n t r e f e r s to a M a s t e r 's d e g re e s tu d e n t e n r o lle d in b u t n o t y e t f i n i s h e d w ith a b a s ic course concerned w ith th e o rie s of counseling. 2. I m p l i c i t p e r s o n a l i ty th e o r y r e f e r s to c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e s, b e l i e f s, and v a lu e s t h a t have d e v e lo p e d a s a r e s u l t o f p a s t l e a r n in g (B u llm e r, )- 3. P h ilo so p h ical o rie n ta tio n re fe rs to phenom enological, psychoa n a l y t i c, an d b e h a v i o r i s t i c ways o f v ie w in g man (R y c h la k,
28 16 4. E x p l i c i t t h e o r e t i c a l m odel r e f e r s to.. a s t r u c t u r e o f h y p o th e s e s and g e n e r a l i z a t io n s h ase d on c o u n s e lin g e x p e rie n c e and experim ental stu d ies " (Brammer & Shostrom, 1968, p. 2? ). The fo llo w in g s e c tio n i s d e s ig n e d to re v ie w r e l a t e d r e s e a r c h d irec ted tow ards elem ents o f im p lic it p erso n ality theory. Review o f R e la te d R e se a rc h L i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i v e to th e in v e s t i g a t i o n o f i m p li c it p e r s o n a lity i s s c a n t. B u llm e r (1975) r e f e r s to i m p lic it p e r s o n a l i ty th e o r y and how i t can he i d e n t i f i e d when a c o u n s e lo r in a p p r o p r ia te ly im plem ents em p a th ie p r o c e s s e s. S t e f f l r e ( 1965) i n f e r s t h a t c o u n s e lo r t r a i n e e s and o th e r s i n t e r e s t e d in th e h e lp in g p r o f e s s io n s o p e r a te u n d e r " h u i l t - i n " t h e o r i e s o r r e l a t i v e l y f i x e d s e t s o f a ssu m p tio n s a h o u t w hat human h e in g s a r e l i k e. As a s p e c ts o f i m p lic it p e r s o n a l i ty theory, more sp e c ific areas o f research have been stu d ied such as : ( 1 ) p e r c e p tio n, ( 2 ) th e th e o r y u se d o r t h e r a p i s t 's s c h o o l, an d ( 3) th e t h e r a p i s t 's te c h n iq u e s. F o r p u rp o s e s o f t h i s stu d y r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s w i l l a l s o be lo o k e d a t a s a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f b e l i e f s w hich influences o n e 's view o f the n ature o f man. P e rc e p tio n The study o f perception has u su ally concerned i t s e l f w ith in te r p e r s o n a l p e r c e p tio n, t h a t i s, th e ta s k s and s k i l l s r e q u ir e d i n o r d e r to p e r c e iv e a c c u r a t e l y th e i n t e r n a l p r o p e r t i e s o r m ake-up o f o th e r human b e in g s. B u llm e r ( P- l ) d e f in e s p e r c e p tio n a s "... a dynamic process by which a human being assig n s in te rn a l meaning to
29 th e e x te r n a l w o rld a ro u n d h im. B ro n fe n b re n n e r ( ) illu m i n a t e s th e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f p e r c e p tu a l s k i l l s in v o lv e d n o t o n ly i n s o c i a l p e r c e p tio n b u t a ls o i n s e n s i t i v i t y to in d iv id u a l d i f f e r e n c e s, e a c h b e in g f a c e t s o f th e in t e r p e r s o n a l p e r c e p tio n p r o c e s s. The p r e s e n t s tu d y i s co n c ern e d more w ith th e e x is te n c e o f i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s th a t form ulate judgm ents o f the perceiv e r, ra th e r than th e e f f e c t th o s e s t r u c t u r e s have upon th e p ro c e s s o f p e r c e p tio n. B u llm e r ( P- 1 ) s t a t e s, "... th e p ro c e s s o f one i n d iv id u a l m aking in f e r e n c e s c o n c e rn in g th e i n t e r n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f a n o th e r p e r s o n, i s i n f lu e n c e d g r e a t l y by th e p e r c e i v e r 's p a s t le a r n i n g e x p e rie n c e s and th in k in g p r o c e s s e s." I n th e l i t e r a t u r e v a r io u s a u t h o r i t i e s have r e f e r r e d to b a s ic stru c tu re s w ithin the person which influence th e process o f percept i o n. P ia g e t ( 1950) was one o f th e f i r s t r e s e a r c h e r s to make r e f e r e n c e to su ch " r u l e s o r schem as" w hich he p o s t u la t e s a r e fo r m u la te d e a r l y i n c h ild h o o d an d c o n tin u e th ro u g h o u t th e i n d i v i d u a l 's l i f e. A n derson (19?4) p o s tu la te d a s e r i e s o f s ta te m e n ts i l l u s t r a t i v e o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l gro w th w h e re in th e in d iv id u a l was s e e n a s a n a c t iv e p r o c e s s o r o f in fo rm a tio n. I n f o rm a tio n p r o c e s s in g was d e s c r ib e d a s a continuous process o f e x tra c tin g and using inform ation from exper ie n c e d s tim u la tio n. He i n d i c a t e d t h a t p e rs o n s w ere c o n s ta n tly p r o c e s s in g in fo rm a tio n from b i r t h to d e a th w hich i s draw n from both : ( a ) in te rn a l and ex te rn al sources, and (b ) previously e x t r a c t e d, u se d and s t o r e d in fo rm a tio n. The p r o c e s s i s s e l e c t iv e an d to a d e g re e o p t i o n a l, b a se d upon th e p e r s o n 's l i m i t e d c a p a b i l i t i e s. I t occurs in stag es, tak es tim e, and req u ires a tte n ta tiv e cap acity.
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