DD2448 Foundations of Cryptography Lecture 1

Transcription

1 DD2448 Foundations of Cryptography Lecture 1 Douglas Wikström KTH Royal Institute of Technology dog@kth.se January 18, 2016

2 Introduction and Administration

3 Information About the Course Oral information given and agreements made during lectures. Read at: Read your KTH If this fails, then Use DD2448 in the subject line.

4 What is cryptography? Cryptography is concerned with the conceptualization, definition, and construction of computing systems that address security concerns. Oded Goldreich, Foundations of Cryptography, 1997

5 Applications of Cryptography Historically. Military and diplomatic secret communication. Communication between banks, e.g., credit card transactions. Modern Time. Protecting satellite TV from leaching. Secrecy and authenticity on the Internet, mobile phones, etc. Credit cards.

6 Applications of Cryptography Today. Distributed file systems, authenticity of blocks in bit torrents, anonymous r ers, Tor-network, etc. RFID tags, Internet banking, Försäkringskassan, Skatteverket, e-legitimation. Future. Secure distributed computing (multiparty computation): election schemes, auctions, secure cloud computing, etc. Variations of signatures, cryptosystem, and other primitives with special properties, e.g., group signatures, identity based encryption, etc.

7 Goal The goal of the course is to give an overview of modern cryptography in order that students should know how to evaluate and, to some extent, create cryptographic constructions, and to be able to read and to extract useful information from research papers in cryptography.

8 Prerequisites DD1352 Algorithms, data structures and complexity, or DD2354 Algorithms and complexity. Knowledge of mathematics and theory of algorithms corresponding to the required courses of the D or F-programmes at KTH.

9 Tentative Plan of Content (1/2) Administration, introduction, classical cryptography. Symmetric ciphers, substitution-permutation networks, linear cryptanalysis, differential cryptanalysis. AES, Feistel networks, DES, modes of operations, DES-variants. Entropy and perfect secrecy. Repetition of elementary number theory, Public-key cryptography, RSA, primality testing, textbook RSA, semantic security.

10 Tentative Plan of Content (2/2) RSA in ROM, Rabin, discrete logarithms, Diffie-Hellman, El Gamal. Security notions of hash functions, random oracles, iterated constructions, SHA, universal hash functions. Message authentication codes, identification schemes, signature schemes, PKI. Elliptic curve cryptography. Pseudorandom generators. Guest lecture. Make-up time and/or special topic.

11 Working Example Throughout the course we will use electronic voting systems to motivate the notions introduced and how to use them.

12 Course Requirements Group project about authentication. Students are divided into groups of three. If the number of students is not divisible by three, then one or two groups will have four members. Describe and provide a security analysis of a way to authenticate a voter in an Internet voting system (in abstract form). Judged by quality of description and level of rigor in the analysis. (20P) Study a real world example of the abstract description, i.e., study how the abstract description is turned into a specification. Judged by level of detail and relevance of topics. (20P)

13 Course Requirements Group project about authentication (cont.). Implement an HTML/CSS/JavaScript client that uses the real world authentication scheme. Judged by how complete and robust it is. (20P) Identify security flaws at any level in the real world authentication scheme, theoretical, in publicly available code fragments, or in solutions of other groups. Judged by the quality and number of observations. (20P)

14 Course Requirements Group project about authentication (cont.). Code is provided for encryption in client (will be discussed in class). Pluggable server will be provided for server side. Students write plugin. Students are expected to form groups naturally, but we reserve the right to reassign students if necessary to make them more balanced in terms of skills in theory and in programming.

15 Course Requirements Homework 1-2. Each homework is a set of problems giving I-points and T-points (I 10 and I +T 100). Solved in groups of up to three students, which may differ for each homework. Only informal discussions are allowed. Each student writes and submits his own solution. Detailed rules and advice are found on the course homepage. Only complete homeworks can be replaced following years. (Less than previous years, but more than two such homeworks.)

16 Qualify for Oral Exam (Possibly) There may be a multiple choice exam during one of the lectures with a pass/fail grade to qualify for the oral exam.

17 Course Requirements Oral Exam. Purpose is to give a fair grade. Discussion starts from submitted solutions and the project to ensure that the grading corresponds to the skills of the student, but can move on to any subject covered in the course. For each problem or project I-points or T-points may be added or removed from the original grading depending on the understanding shown by the student. The updated number of points of a problem is never negative and never more than the nominal maximum number of points of the problem stated in the homework. A single O-point is awarded after passing the exam.

18 Deadlines The deadlines in this course are given on the homepage and are strict. Late solutions are awarded zero points. However, if practically possible, then we negotiate the deadlines to not conflict unnecessarily with other courses.

19 Grading To earn a given grade the requirements of all lower grades must be satisfied as well, with A = I +T +P +O. Grade Requirements E I 30, T 40, P 30, and O 1. D A 120. C A 140 and P 50. B A 170. A A 210 and P 60.

20 Kattis Kattis is a judging server for programming competitions and for grading programming assignments. We use it for all isolated exercises where code is submitted as a solution. We assume that your Kattis id is the same as your KTH user name. If this is not the case, then us your Kattis user name and use the subject Krypto16 Kattis.

21 Latex Latex is the standard typesetting tool for mathematics. It is the fastest way to produce mathematical writing. You must use it to typeset your solutions. The best way to learn it is to read:

22 Introduction to Ciphers

23 Cipher (Symmetric Cryptosystem) c = E k (m) m = E 1 k (c) m E c E 1 m Alice k k Bob

24 Cipher (Symmetric Cryptosystem) Definition. A cipher (symmetric cryptosystem) is a tuple (Gen,P,E,E 1 ), where

25 Cipher (Symmetric Cryptosystem) Definition. A cipher (symmetric cryptosystem) is a tuple (Gen,P,E,E 1 ), where Gen is a probabilistic key generation algorithm outputting keys from a key space K,

26 Cipher (Symmetric Cryptosystem) Definition. A cipher (symmetric cryptosystem) is a tuple (Gen,P,E,E 1 ), where Gen is a probabilistic key generation algorithm outputting keys from a key space K, P is a set of plaintexts,

27 Cipher (Symmetric Cryptosystem) Definition. A cipher (symmetric cryptosystem) is a tuple (Gen,P,E,E 1 ), where Gen is a probabilistic key generation algorithm outputting keys from a key space K, P is a set of plaintexts, E is a deterministic encryption algorithm, and

28 Cipher (Symmetric Cryptosystem) Definition. A cipher (symmetric cryptosystem) is a tuple (Gen,P,E,E 1 ), where Gen is a probabilistic key generation algorithm outputting keys from a key space K, P is a set of plaintexts, E is a deterministic encryption algorithm, and E 1 is a deterministic decryption algorithm,

29 Cipher (Symmetric Cryptosystem) Definition. A cipher (symmetric cryptosystem) is a tuple (Gen,P,E,E 1 ), where Gen is a probabilistic key generation algorithm outputting keys from a key space K, P is a set of plaintexts, E is a deterministic encryption algorithm, and E 1 is a deterministic decryption algorithm, such that E 1 k (E k(m)) = m for every message m P and k K. The set C = {E k (m) m P k K} called the set of ciphertexts.

30 Attacks Throughout the course we consider various attacks on cryptosystems. With small changes, these attacks make sense both for symmetric and asymmetric cryptosystems. Ciphertext-only attack. Known-plaintext attack Chosen-plaintext attack Chosen-ciphertext attack

31 Ceasar Cipher (Shift Cipher) Consider English, with alphabet A-Z, where denotes space, thought of as integers 0-26, i.e., Z 27 Key. Random letter k Z 27. Encrypt. Plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ) Z n 27 c = (c 1,...,c n ), where c i = m i +k mod 27. gives ciphertext Decrypt. Ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ) Z n 27 gives plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ), where m i = c i k mod 27.

32 Ceasar Cipher Example Encoding. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Key: G = 6 Plaintext. B R I B E L U L A T O B U Y J A S Plaintext Ciphertext Ciphertext. H X O H K F R R G F Z U F H D F P G Y

33 Statistical Attack Against Ceasar (1/3) Decrypt with all possible keys and see if some English shows up, or more precisely...

34 Statistical Attack Against Ceasar (2/3) Written English Letter Frequency Table F[ ]. A J S B K T C L U D M V E N W F O X G P Y H Q Z I R Note that the same frequencies appear in a ciphertext of written English, but in shifted order!

35 Statistical Attack Against Ceasar (3/3) Check that the plaintext of our ciphertext has similar frequencies as written English. Find the key k that maximizes the inner product T(E 1 k (C)) F, where T(s) and F denotes the frequency tables of the string s and English. This usually gives the correct key k.

36 Affine Cipher Affine Cipher. Key. Random pair k = (a,b), where a Z 27 is relatively prime to 27, and b Z 27. Encrypt. Plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ) Z n 27 gives ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ), where c i = am i +b mod 27. Decrypt. Ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ) Z n 27 gives plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ), where m i = (c i b)a 1 mod 27.

37 Substitution Cipher Ceasar cipher and affine cipher are examples of substitution ciphers. Substitution Cipher. Key. Random permutation σ S of the symbols in the alphabet, for some subset S of all permutations. Encrypt. Plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ) Z n 27 c = (c 1,...,c n ), where c i = σ(m i ). Decrypt. Ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ) Z n 27 m = (m 1,...,m n ), where m i = σ 1 (c i ). gives ciphertext gives plaintext

38 Digrams and Trigrams A digram is an ordered pair of symbols. A trigram is an ordered triple of symbols. It is useful to compute frequency tables for the most frequent digrams and trigrams, and not only the frequencies for individual symbols.

39 Generic Attack Against Substitution Cipher 1. Compute symbol/digram/trigram frequency tables for the candidate language and the ciphertext. 2. Try to match symbols/digrams/trigrams with similar frequencies. 3. Try to recognize words to confirm your guesses (we would use a dictionary (or Google!) here). 4. Backtrack/repeat until the plaintext can be guessed. This is hard when several symbols have similar frequencies. A large amount of ciphertext is needed. How can we ensure this?

40 Vigénère Vigénère Cipher. Key. k = (k 0,...,k l 1 ), where k i Z 27 is random. Encrypt. Plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ) Z n 27 gives ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ), where c i = m i +k i mod l mod 27. Decrypt. Ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ) Z n 27 gives plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ), where m i = c i k i mod l mod 27.

41 Vigénère Vigénère Cipher. Key. k = (k 0,...,k l 1 ), where k i Z 27 is random. Encrypt. Plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ) Z n 27 gives ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ), where c i = m i +k i mod l mod 27. Decrypt. Ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ) Z n 27 gives plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ), where m i = c i k i mod l mod 27. We could even make a variant of Vigénère based on the affine cipher, but is Vigénère really any better than Ceasar?

42 Attack Vigénère (1/2) Index of Coincidence. Each probability distribution p 1,...,p n on n symbols may be viewed as a point p = (p 1,...,p n ) on a n 1 dimensional hyperplane in R n orthogonal to the vector 1 Such a point p = (p 1,...,p n ) is at distance F(p) from the origin, where F(p) = n i=1 p2 i. It is clear that p is closest to the origin, when p is the uniform distribution, i.e., when F(p) is minimized. F(p) is invariant under permutation of the underlying symbols tool to check if a set of symbols is the result of some substitution cipher.

43 Attack Vigénère (2/2) 1. For l = 1,2,3,..., we form C 0 c 0 c l c 2l C 1. = c 1 c l+1 c 2l c l 1 c 2l 1 c 3l 1 C l 1 and compute f l = 1 l l 1 i=0 F(C i). 2. The local maximum with smallest l is probably the right length. 3. Then attack each C i separately to recover k i, using the attack against the Ceasar cipher.

44 Hill Cipher Hill Cipher. Key. k = A, where A is an invertible l l-matrix over Z 27. Encrypt. Plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ) Z n 27 gives ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ), where (computed modulo 27): (c i+0,...,c i+l 1 ) = (m i+0,...,m i+l 1 )A. Decrypt. Ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ) Z n 27 gives plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ), where (computed modulo 27): (m i+0,...,m i+l 1 ) = (c i+0,...,c i+l 1 )A 1. for i = 1,l +1,2l +1,...

45 Hill Cipher Hill Cipher. Key. k = A, where A is an invertible l l-matrix over Z 27. Encrypt. Plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ) Z n 27 gives ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ), where (computed modulo 27): (c i+0,...,c i+l 1 ) = (m i+0,...,m i+l 1 )A. Decrypt. Ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ) Z n 27 gives plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ), where (computed modulo 27): (m i+0,...,m i+l 1 ) = (c i+0,...,c i+l 1 )A 1. for i = 1,l +1,2l +1,... The Hill cipher is easy to break using a known plaintext attack.

46 Permutation Cipher (Transposition Cipher) The permutation cipher is a special case of the Hill cipher. Permutation Cipher. Key. Random permutation π S for some subset S of the set of permutations of {0,1,2,...,l 1}. Encrypt. Plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ) Z n 27 gives ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ), where c i = m i/l +π(i mod l). Decrypt. Ciphertext c = (c 1,...,c n ) Z n 27 gives plaintext m = (m 1,...,m n ), where m i = c i/l +π 1 (i mod l).

47 Last Lecture: Simple Ciphers Caesar cipher and affine cipher: m i am i +b. Substitution cipher: m i σ(m i ). Vigénère cipher: m i m i +k i mod l. Hill cipher (linear map): (m 1,...,m l ) A(m 1,...,m l ) Transposition cipher (permutation): (m 1,...,m l ) (m π(1),...,m π(l) )

48 Substitution-Permutation Networks

49 Good Block Cipher For every key a block-cipher with plaintext/ciphertext space {0,1} n gives a permutation of {0,1} n. What would be an good cipher?

50 Good Block Cipher For every key a block-cipher with plaintext/ciphertext space {0,1} n gives a permutation of {0,1} n. What would be an good cipher? A good cipher is one where each key gives a randomly chosen permutation of {0,1} n. Why is this not possible?

51 Good Block Cipher For every key a block-cipher with plaintext/ciphertext space {0,1} n gives a permutation of {0,1} n. What would be an good cipher? A good cipher is one where each key gives a randomly chosen permutation of {0,1} n. Why is this not possible? The representation of a single typical function {0,1} n {0,1} n requires roughly n2 n bits ( for n = 64)

52 Good Block Cipher For every key a block-cipher with plaintext/ciphertext space {0,1} n gives a permutation of {0,1} n. What would be an good cipher? A good cipher is one where each key gives a randomly chosen permutation of {0,1} n. Why is this not possible? The representation of a single typical function {0,1} n {0,1} n requires roughly n2 n bits ( for n = 64) What should we look for instead?

53 Something Smaller Idea. Compose smaller permutations into a large one. Mix the components thoroughly.

54 Something Smaller Idea. Compose smaller permutations into a large one. Mix the components thoroughly. Shannon (1948) calls this: Diffusion. In the method of diffusion the statistical structure of M which leads to its redundancy is dissipated into long range statistics... Confusion. The method of confusion is to make the relation between the simple statistics of E and the simple description of K a very complex and involved one.

55 Substitution-Permutation Networks (1/2) Block-size. We use a block-size of n = l m bits. Key Schedule. Round r uses its own round key K r derived from the key K using a key schedule. Each Round. In each round we invoke: 1. Round Key. xor with the round key. 2. Substitution. l substitution boxes each acting on one m-bit word (m-bit S-Boxes). 3. Permutation. A permutation π i acting on {1,...,n} to reorder the n bits.

56 Substitution-Permutation Networks (2/2) U i 1 K i

57 Substitution-Permutation Networks (2/2) U i 1 K i xor with round key X i

58 Substitution-Permutation Networks (2/2) U i 1 K i xor with round key X i S i,1 S i,2 S i,3 S i,4 substitute words Y i

59 Substitution-Permutation Networks (2/2) U i 1 K i xor with round key X i S i,1 S i,2 S i,3 S i,4 substitute words Y i π i permute bits U i

60 Substitution-Permutation Networks (2/2) U i 1 K i xor with round key X i S i,1 S i,2 S i,3 S i,4 substitute words Y i permute bits U i

61 Substitution-Permutation Networks (2/2) U i 1 K i Round i U i

62 A Simple Block Cipher (1/2) P = C = 16 4 rounds K = 32 rth round key K r consists of the 4rth to the (4r +16)th bits of key K. 4-bit S-Boxes

63 A Simple Block Cipher (2/2) S-Boxes the same (S S 1 ) Y = S(X) Can be described using 4 boolean functions Input A B C D E F Output E 4 D 1 2 F B 8 3 A 6 C

64 A Simple Block Cipher (2/2) S-Boxes the same (S S 1 ) Y = S(X) Can be described using 4 boolean functions Input A B C D E F Output E 4 D 1 2 F B 8 3 A 6 C bit permutation (π = π 1 ) Input Output

65 AES

66 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) Chosen in worldwide public competition Probably no backdoors. Increased confidence! Winning proposal named Rijndael, by Rijmen and Daemen Family of 128-bit block ciphers: Key bits Rounds The first key-recovery attacks on full AES due to Bogdanov, Khovratovich, and Rechberger, published 2011, is faster than brute force by a factor of about algebraics of AES make some people uneasy.

67 AES AddRoundKey: xor with round key. SubBytes: substitution of bytes. ShiftRows: permutation of bytes. MixColumns: linear map.

68 Similar to SPN The 128 bit state is interpreted as a 4 4 matrix of bytes. Something like a mix between substitution, permutation, affine version of Hill cipher. In each round!

69 SubBytes SubBytes is field inversion in F 2 8 plus affine map in F 8 2.

70 ShiftRows ShiftRows is a cyclic shift of bytes with offsets: 0, 1, 2, and 3.

71 MixColumns MixColumns is an invertible linear map over F 2 8 (with irreducibile polynomial x 8 +x 4 +x 3 +x +1) with good diffusion.

72 Decryption Uses the following transforms: AddRoundKey InvSubBytes InvShiftRows InvMixColumns

73 Feistel Networks

74 Feistel Networks Identical rounds are iterated, but with different round keys. The input to the ith round is divided in a left and right part, denoted L i 1 and R i 1. f is a function for which it is somewhat hard to find pre-images, but f is typically not invertible! One round is defined by: L i = R i 1 where K i is the ith round key. R i = L i 1 f(r i 1,K i )

75 Feistel Round left L i 1 R i 1 right K i

76 Feistel Round left L i 1 R i 1 right f K i

77 Feistel Round left L i 1 R i 1 right f K i R i compute left

78 Feistel Round left L i 1 R i 1 right f K i copy right L i R i compute left

79 Feistel Cipher

80 Inverse Feistel Round Feistel Round. L i = R i 1 R i = L i 1 f(r i 1,K i )

81 Inverse Feistel Round Feistel Round. L i = R i 1 R i = L i 1 f(r i 1,K i ) Inverse Feistel Round. L i 1 = R i f(l i,k i ) R i 1 = L i Reverse direction and swap left and right!

82 DES

83 Quote The news here is not that DES is insecure, that hardware algorithm-crackers can be built, or that a 56-bit key length is too short.... The news is how long the government has been denying that these machines were possible. As recently as 8 June 98, Robert Litt, principal associate deputy attorney general at the Department of Justice, denied that it was possible for the FBI to crack DES.... My comment was that the FBI is either incompetent or lying, or both. Bruce Schneier, 1998

84 Data Encryption Standard (DES) Developed at IBM in 1975, or perhaps...

85 Data Encryption Standard (DES) Developed at IBM in 1975, or perhaps... at National Security Agency (NSA). Nobody knows for certain.

86 Data Encryption Standard (DES) Developed at IBM in 1975, or perhaps... at National Security Agency (NSA). Nobody knows for certain. 16-round Feistel network.

87 Data Encryption Standard (DES) Developed at IBM in 1975, or perhaps... at National Security Agency (NSA). Nobody knows for certain. 16-round Feistel network. Key schedule derives permuted bits for each round key from a 56-bit key. Supposedly not 64-bit due to parity bits.

88 Data Encryption Standard (DES) Developed at IBM in 1975, or perhaps... at National Security Agency (NSA). Nobody knows for certain. 16-round Feistel network. Key schedule derives permuted bits for each round key from a 56-bit key. Supposedly not 64-bit due to parity bits. Let us look a little at the Feistel-function f.

89 DES s f-function 32 bits R i 1 K i 48 bits

90 DES s f-function 32 bits R i 1 E E(R i 1 ) K i 48 bits 48 bits

91 DES s f-function 32 bits R i 1 E E(R i 1 ) K i 48 bits 48 bits B 1 B 2 B 3 B 4 B 5 B 6 B 7 B 8 48 bits

92 DES s f-function 32 bits R i 1 E E(R i 1 ) K i 48 bits 48 bits B 1 B 2 B 3 B 4 B 5 B 6 B 7 B 8 48 bits S 1 S 2 S 3 S 4 S 5 S 6 S 7 S 8 c 1 c 2 c 3 c 4 c 5 c 6 c 7 c 8 32 bits

93 DES s f-function 32 bits R i 1 E E(R i 1 ) K i 48 bits 48 bits B 1 B 2 B 3 B 4 B 5 B 6 B 7 B 8 48 bits S 1 S 2 S 3 S 4 S 5 S 6 S 7 S 8 c 1 c 2 c 3 c 4 c 5 c 6 c 7 c 8 32 bits P f(r i 1,K i )

94 Security of DES Brute Force. Try all 2 56 keys. Done in practice with special chip by Electronic Frontier Foundation, Likely much earlier by NSA and others. Differential Cryptanalysis chosen plaintexts, Biham and Shamir, (approach: late 80 ies). Known earlier by IBM and NSA. DES is surprisingly resistant! Linear Cryptanalysis known plaintexts, Matsui, Probably not known by IBM and NSA!

95 Double DES We have seen that the key space of DES is too small. One way to increase it is to use DES twice, so called double DES. 2DES k1,k 2 (x) = DES k2 (DES k1 (x)) Is this more secure than DES? This question is valid for any cipher.

96 Meet-In-the-Middle Attack Get hold of a plaintext-ciphertext pair (m,c) Compute X = {x k 1 K DES x = E k1 (m)}. For k 2 K DES check if E 1 k 2 (c) = E k1 (m) for some k 1 using the table X. If so, then (k 1,k 2 ) is a good candidate. Repeat with (m,c ), starting from the set of candidate keys to identify correct key.

97 Triple DES What about triple DES? 3DES k1,k 2,k 3 (x) = DES k3 (DES k2 (DES k1 (x))) Seemingly 112 bit effective key size. 3 times as slow as DES. DES is slow in software, and this is even worse. One of the motivations of AES. Triple DES is still considered to be secure.

98 Modes of Operation

99 Modes of Operation Electronic codebook mode (ECB mode). Cipher feedback mode (CFB mode). Cipher block chaining mode (CBC mode). Output feedback mode (OFB mode). Counter mode (CTR mode).

100 ECB Mode Electronic codebook mode Encrypt each block independently: c i = E k (m i )

101 ECB Mode Electronic codebook mode Encrypt each block independently: c i = E k (m i ) Identical plaintext blocks give identical ciphertext blocks.

102 ECB Mode Electronic codebook mode Encrypt each block independently: c i = E k (m i ) Identical plaintext blocks give identical ciphertext blocks. How can we avoid this?

103 CFB Mode Cipher feedback mode xor plaintext block with previous ciphertext block after encryption: c 0 = initialization vector c i = m i E k (c i 1 )

104 CFB Mode Cipher feedback mode xor plaintext block with previous ciphertext block after encryption: c 0 = initialization vector c i = m i E k (c i 1 ) Sequential encryption and parallel decryption.

105 CFB Mode Cipher feedback mode xor plaintext block with previous ciphertext block after encryption: c 0 = initialization vector c i = m i E k (c i 1 ) Sequential encryption and parallel decryption. Self-synchronizing.

106 CFB Mode Cipher feedback mode xor plaintext block with previous ciphertext block after encryption: c 0 = initialization vector c i = m i E k (c i 1 ) Sequential encryption and parallel decryption. Self-synchronizing. How do we pick the initialization vector?

107 CBC Mode Cipher block chaining mode xor plaintext block with previous ciphertext block before encryption: c 0 = initialization vector c i = E k ( ci 1 m i )

108 CBC Mode Cipher block chaining mode xor plaintext block with previous ciphertext block before encryption: c 0 = initialization vector c i = E k ( ci 1 m i ) Sequential encryption and parallel decryption

109 CBC Mode Cipher block chaining mode xor plaintext block with previous ciphertext block before encryption: c 0 = initialization vector c i = E k ( ci 1 m i ) Sequential encryption and parallel decryption Self-synchronizing.

110 OFB Mode Output feedback mode Generate stream, xor plaintexts with stream (emulate one-time pad ): s 0 = initialization vector s i = E k (s i 1 ) c i = s i m i

111 OFB Mode Output feedback mode Generate stream, xor plaintexts with stream (emulate one-time pad ): s 0 = initialization vector s i = E k (s i 1 ) c i = s i m i Sequential.

112 OFB Mode Output feedback mode Generate stream, xor plaintexts with stream (emulate one-time pad ): s 0 = initialization vector s i = E k (s i 1 ) c i = s i m i Sequential. Synchronous.

113 OFB Mode Output feedback mode Generate stream, xor plaintexts with stream (emulate one-time pad ): s 0 = initialization vector s i = E k (s i 1 ) c i = s i m i Sequential. Synchronous. Allows batch processing.

114 OFB Mode Output feedback mode Generate stream, xor plaintexts with stream (emulate one-time pad ): s 0 = initialization vector s i = E k (s i 1 ) c i = s i m i Sequential. Synchronous. Allows batch processing. Malleable!

115 CTR Mode Counter mode Generate stream, xor plaintexts with stream (emulate one-time pad ): s 0 = initialization vector s i = E k (s 0 i) c i = s i m i

116 CTR Mode Counter mode Generate stream, xor plaintexts with stream (emulate one-time pad ): s 0 = initialization vector s i = E k (s 0 i) c i = s i m i Parallel.

117 CTR Mode Counter mode Generate stream, xor plaintexts with stream (emulate one-time pad ): s 0 = initialization vector s i = E k (s 0 i) c i = s i m i Parallel. Synchronous.

118 CTR Mode Counter mode Generate stream, xor plaintexts with stream (emulate one-time pad ): s 0 = initialization vector s i = E k (s 0 i) c i = s i m i Parallel. Synchronous. Allows batch processing.

119 CTR Mode Counter mode Generate stream, xor plaintexts with stream (emulate one-time pad ): s 0 = initialization vector s i = E k (s 0 i) c i = s i m i Parallel. Synchronous. Allows batch processing. Malleable!

120 Linear Cryptanalysis of the SPN

121 Basic Idea Linearize Find an expression of the following form with a high probability of occurrence. P i1 P ip C j1 C jc = K l1,s 1 K lk,s k Each random plaintext/ciphertext pair gives an estimate of K l1,s 1 K lk,s k Collect many pairs and make a better estimate based on the majority vote.

122 How do we come up with the desired expression? How do we compute the required number of samples?

123 Bias Definition. The bias ǫ(x) of a binary random variable X is defined by ǫ(x) = Pr[X = 0] 1 2.

124 Bias Definition. The bias ǫ(x) of a binary random variable X is defined by ǫ(x) = Pr[X = 0] /ǫ 2 (X) samples are required to estimate X (Matsui)

125 Linear Approximation of S-Box (1/3) Let X and Y be the input and output of an S-box, i.e. Y = S(X). We consider the bias of linear combinations of the form ( ( ) a X b Y = a i X i ) b i Y i. i i

126 Linear Approximation of S-Box (1/3) Let X and Y be the input and output of an S-box, i.e. Y = S(X). We consider the bias of linear combinations of the form ( ( ) a X b Y = a i X i ) b i Y i. i i Example: X 2 X 3 = Y 1 Y 3 Y 4 The expression holds in 12 out of the 16 cases. Hence, it has a bias of (12 8)/16 = 4/16 = 1/4.

127 Linear Approximation of S-Box (2/3) Let N L (a,b) be the number of zero-outcomes of a X b Y. The bias is then ǫ(a X b Y) = N L(a,b) 8 16 since there are four bits in X, and Y is determined by X.,

128 Linear Approximation Table (3/3) N L (a,b) 8

129 This gives linear approximation for one round. How do we come up with linear approximation for more rounds?

130 Piling-Up Lemma Lemma. Let X 1,...,X t be independent binary random variables and let ǫ i = ǫ(x i ). Then ( ) ǫ X i = 2 t 1 ǫ i. i Proof. Case t = 2: i Pr[X 1 X 2 = 0] = Pr[(X 1 = 0 X 1 = 0) (X 1 = 1 X 1 = 1)] = ( 1 2 +ǫ 1)( 1 2 +ǫ 2)+( 1 2 ǫ 1)( 1 2 ǫ 2) = ǫ 1ǫ 2. By induction Pr[X 1 X t = 0] = t 1 i ǫ i

131 Linear Trail Four linear approximations with ǫ i = 1/4 S 12 : X 1 X 3 X 4 = Y 2 S 22 : X 2 = Y 2 Y 4 S 32 : X 2 = Y 2 Y 4 S 34 : X 2 = Y 2 Y 4 Combine them to get: U 4,6 U 4,8 U 4,14 U 4,16 P 5 P 7 P 8 = K i,j with bias ǫ = ( 1 4 )4 = 2 5

132 Attack Idea Our expression (with bias 2 5 ) links plaintext bits to input bits to the 4th round Partially undo the last round by guessing the last key. Only 2 S-Boxes are involved, i.e., 2 8 = 256 guesses For a correct guess, the equation holds with bias 2 5. For a wrong guess, it holds with bias zero (i.e., probability close to 1/2).

133 Attack Idea Our expression (with bias 2 5 ) links plaintext bits to input bits to the 4th round Partially undo the last round by guessing the last key. Only 2 S-Boxes are involved, i.e., 2 8 = 256 guesses For a correct guess, the equation holds with bias 2 5. For a wrong guess, it holds with bias zero (i.e., probability close to 1/2). Required pairs Attack complexity operations

134 Linear Cryptanalysis Summary 1. Find linear approximation of S-Boxes. 2. Compute bias of each approximation. 3. Find linear trails. 4. Compute bias of linear trails. 5. Compute data and time complexity. 6. Estimate key bits from many plaintext-ciphertexts pairs. Linear cryptanalysis is a known plaintext attack.

135 Ideal Block Cipher

136 Negligible Functions Definition. A function ǫ(n) is negligible if for every constant c > 0, there exists a constant n 0, such that for all n n 0. ǫ(n) < 1 n c Motivation. Events happening with negligible probability can not be exploited by polynomial time algorithms! (they never happen)

137 Pseudo-Random Function Definition. A function is pseudo-random if no efficient adversary can distinguish between the function and a random function.

138 Pseudo-Random Function Definition. A function is pseudo-random if no efficient adversary can distinguish between the function and a random function. Definition. A family of functions F : {0,1} k {0,1} n {0,1} n is pseudo-random if for all polynomial time oracle adversaries A [ ] Pr A FK( ) = 1 Pr A R( ) = 1] is negligible. K R:{0,1} n {0,1} n [

139 Pseudo-Random Permutation Definition. A permutation and its inverse is pseudo-random if no efficient adversary can distinguish between the permutation and its inverse, and a random permutation and its inverse.

140 Pseudo-Random Permutation Definition. A permutation and its inverse is pseudo-random if no efficient adversary can distinguish between the permutation and its inverse, and a random permutation and its inverse. Definition. A family of permutations P : {0,1} k {0,1} n {0,1} n are pseudo-random if for all polynomial time oracle adversaries A ] [ [A Pr P K( ),P 1 K ( ) = 1 Pr A Π( ),Π 1 ( ) = 1] K Π S 2 n is negligible, where S 2 n is the set of permutations of {0,1} n.

141 Idealized Four-Round Feistel Network Definition. Feistel round (H for Horst Feistel ). H FK (L,R) = (R,L F(R,K))

142 Idealized Four-Round Feistel Network Definition. Feistel round (H for Horst Feistel ). H FK (L,R) = (R,L F(R,K)) Theorem. (Luby and Rackoff) If F is a pseudo-random family of functions, then H Fk1,F k2,f k3,f k4 (x) = H Fk4 (H Fk3 (H Fk2 (H Fk1 (x)))) (and its inverse) is a pseudo-random family of permutations.

143 Idealized Four-Round Feistel Network Definition. Feistel round (H for Horst Feistel ). H FK (L,R) = (R,L F(R,K)) Theorem. (Luby and Rackoff) If F is a pseudo-random family of functions, then H Fk1,F k2,f k3,f k4 (x) = H Fk4 (H Fk3 (H Fk2 (H Fk1 (x)))) (and its inverse) is a pseudo-random family of permutations. Why do we need four rounds?

144 Perfect Secrecy

145 Perfect Secrecy (1/3) When is a cipher perfectly secure?

146 Perfect Secrecy (1/3) When is a cipher perfectly secure? How should we formalize this?

147 Perfect Secrecy (2/3) Definition. A cryptosystem has perfect secrecy if guessing the plaintext is as hard to do given the ciphertext as it is without it.

148 Perfect Secrecy (2/3) Definition. A cryptosystem has perfect secrecy if guessing the plaintext is as hard to do given the ciphertext as it is without it. Definition. A cryptosystem has perfect secrecy if Pr[M = m C = c] = Pr[M = m] for every m M and c C, where M and C are random variables taking values over M and C.

149 Perfect Secrecy (3/3) Game Based Definition. Exp b A, where A is a strategy: 1. k R K 2. (m 0,m 1 ) A 3. c = E k (m b ) 4. d A(c), with d {0,1} 5. Output d. Definition. A cryptosystem has perfect secrecy if for every computationally unbounded strategy A, Pr [ Exp 0 A = 1] = Pr [ Exp 1 A = 1].

150 One-Time Pad One-Time Pad (OTP). Key. Random tuple k = (b 0,...,b n 1 ) Z n 2. Encrypt. Plaintext m = (m 0,...,m n 1 ) Z n 2 gives ciphertext c = (c 0,...,c n 1 ), where c i = m i b i. Decrypt. Ciphertext c = (c 0,...,c n 1 ) Z n 2 m = (m 0,...,m n 1 ), where m i = c i b i. gives plaintext

151 Bayes Theorem Theorem. If A and B are events and Pr[B] > 0, then Pr[A B] = Pr[A]Pr[B A] Pr[B] Terminology: Pr[A] prior probability of A Pr[B] prior probability of B Pr[A B] posterior probability of A given B Pr[B A] posterior probability of B given A

152 One-Time Pad Has Perfect Secrecy Probabilistic Argument. Bayes implies that: Pr[M = m C = c] = Pr[M = m]pr[c = c M = m] Pr[C = c] = Pr[M = m] 2 n 2 n = Pr[M = m]. Simulation Argument. The ciphertext is uniformly and independently distributed from the plaintext. We can simulate it on our own!

153 Bad News Theorem. For every cipher with perfect secrecy, the key requires at least as much space to represent as the plaintext. Dangerous in practice to rely on no reuse of, e.g., file containing randomness!

154 Information Theory

155 Information Theory Information theory is a mathematical theory of communication. Typical questions studied are how to compress, transmit, and store information. Information theory is also useful to argue about some cryptographic schemes and protocols.

156 Classical Information Theory Memoryless Source Over Finite Alphabet. A source produces symbols from an alphabet Σ = {a 1,...,a n }. Each generated symbol is independently distributed. Binary Channel. A binary channel can (only) send bits. Coder/Decoder. Our goal is to come up with a scheme to: 1. convert a symbol a from the alphabet Σ into a sequence (b 1,...,b l ) of bits, 2. send the bits over the channel, and 3. decode the sequence into a again at the receiving end.

157 Classical Information Theory m Enc Channel Dec m Alice Bob

158 Optimization Goal We want to minimize the expected number of bits/symbol we send over the binary channel, i.e., if X is a random variable over Σ and l(x) is the length of the codeword of x then we wish to minimize E[l(X)] = x ΣP X (x)l(x).

159 Examples: X takes values in Σ = {a,b,c,d} with uniform distribution. How would you encode this?

160 Examples: X takes values in Σ = {a,b,c,d} with uniform distribution. How would you encode this? It seems we need l(x) = log Σ. This gives the Hartley measure.

161 Examples: X takes values in Σ = {a,b,c,d} with uniform distribution. How would you encode this? X takes values in Σ = {a,b,c}, with P X (a) = 1 2, P X (b) = 1 4, and P X (c) = 1 4. How would you encode this? It seems we need l(x) = log Σ. This gives the Hartley measure. hmmm...

162 Examples: X takes values in Σ = {a,b,c,d} with uniform distribution. How would you encode this? X takes values in Σ = {a,b,c}, with P X (a) = 1 2, P X (b) = 1 4, and P X (c) = 1 4. How would you encode this? It seems we need l(x) = log 1 P X (x) bits to encode x.

163 Entropy Let us turn this expression into a definition. Definition. Let X be a random variable taking values in X. Then the entropy of X is H(X) = x X P X (x)logp X (x). Examples and intuition are nice, but what we need is a theorem that states that this is exactly the right expected length of an optimal code.

164 Jensen s Inequality Definition. A function f : X (a,b) is concave if λ f(x)+(1 λ)f(y) f (λ x +(1 λ)y), for every x,y (a,b) and 0 λ 1.

165 Jensen s Inequality Definition. A function f : X (a,b) is concave if λ f(x)+(1 λ)f(y) f (λ x +(1 λ)y), for every x,y (a,b) and 0 λ 1. Theorem. Suppose f is continuous and strictly concave on (a, b), and X is a discrete random variable. Then with equality iff X is constant. E[f(X)] f(e[x]),

166 Jensen s Inequality Definition. A function f : X (a,b) is concave if λ f(x)+(1 λ)f(y) f (λ x +(1 λ)y), for every x,y (a,b) and 0 λ 1. Theorem. Suppose f is continuous and strictly concave on (a, b), and X is a discrete random variable. Then with equality iff X is constant. E[f(X)] f(e[x]), Proof idea. Consider two points + induction over number of points.

167 Kraft s Inequality Theorem. There exists a prefix-free code E with codeword lengths l x, for x Σ if and only if 2 lx 1. x Σ Proof Sketch. Given a prefix-free code, we consider the corresponding binary tree with codewords at the leaves. We may fold it by replacing two sibling leaves E(x) and E(y) by (xy) with length l x 1. Repeat. Given lengths l x1 l x2... l xn we start with the complete binary tree of depth l xn and prune it.

168 Binary Source Coding Theorem (1/2) Theorem. Let E be an optimal code and let l(x) be the length of the codeword of x. Then H(X) E[l(X)] < H(X)+1.

169 Binary Source Coding Theorem (1/2) Theorem. Let E be an optimal code and let l(x) be the length of the codeword of x. Then H(X) E[l(X)] < H(X)+1. Proof of Upper Bound. Define l x = logp X (x). Then we have x Σ2 lx x Σ2 logpx(x) = x Σ P X (x) = 1 Kraft s inequality implies that there is a code with codeword lengths l x. Then note that x Σ P X (x) logp X (x) < H(X)+1.

170 Binary Source Coding Theorem (2/2) Proof of Lower Bound. E[l(X)] = x P X (x)l x = x x P X (x)log2 lx P X (x)logp X (x) = H(X)

171 Huffman s Code (1/2) Input: {(a 1,p 1 ),...,(a n,p n )}. Output: 0/1-labeled rooted tree. Huffman({(a 1,p 1 ),...,(a n,p n )}) (1) S {(a 1,p 1,a 1 ),...,(a n,p n,a n )} (2) while S 2 (3) Find (b i,p i,t i ),(b j,p j,t j ) S with minimal p i and p j. (4) S S \{(b i,p i,t i ),(b j,p j,t j )} (5) S S { ( b i b j,p i +p j,node(t i,t j ) ) } (6) return S

172 Huffman s Code (2/2) Theorem. Huffman s code is optimal. Proof idea. There exists an optimal code where the two least likely symbols are neighbors.

173 Entropy Let us turn this expression into a definition. Definition. Let X be a random variable taking values in X. Then the entropy of X is H(X) = x X P X (x)logp X (x). Examples and intuition are nice, but what we need is a theorem that states that this is exactly the right expected length of an optimal code.

174 Conditional Entropy Definition. Let (X,Y) be a random variable taking values in X Y. We define conditional entropy H(X y) = x P X Y (x y)logp X Y (x y) and H(X Y) = y P Y (y)h(x y) Note that H(X y) is simply the ordinary entropy function of a random variable with probability function P X Y ( y).

175 Properties of Entropy Let X be a random variable taking values in X. Upper Bound. H(X) = E[ logp X (X)] log X. Chain Rule and Conditioning. H(X,Y) = x,y = x,y P X,Y (x,y)logp X,Y (x,y) P X,Y (x,y) ( logp Y (y)+logp X Y (x y) ) = y P Y (y)logp Y (y) x,y P X,Y (x,y)logp X Y (x y) = H(Y)+H(X Y) H(Y)+H(X)

176 Elementary Number Theory

177 Greatest Common Divisors Definition. A common divisor of two integers m and n is an integer d such that d m and d n. Definition. A greatest common divisor (GCD) of two integers m and n is a common divisor d such that every common divisor d divides d.

178 Greatest Common Divisors Definition. A common divisor of two integers m and n is an integer d such that d m and d n. Definition. A greatest common divisor (GCD) of two integers m and n is a common divisor d such that every common divisor d divides d. The GCD is the positive GCD.

179 Greatest Common Divisors Definition. A common divisor of two integers m and n is an integer d such that d m and d n. Definition. A greatest common divisor (GCD) of two integers m and n is a common divisor d such that every common divisor d divides d. The GCD is the positive GCD. We denote the GCD of m and n by gcd(m,n).

180 Properties gcd(m,n) = gcd(n,m) gcd(m,n) = gcd(m ±n,n) gcd(m,n) = gcd(m mod n,n) gcd(m,n) = 2gcd(m/2,n/2) if m and n are even. gcd(m,n) = gcd(m/2,n) if m is even and n is odd.

181 Euclidean Algorithm Euclidean(m, n) (1) while n 0 (2) t n (3) n m mod n (4) m t (5) return m

182 Steins Algorithm (Binary GCD Algorithm) Stein(m, n) (1) if m = 0 or n = 0 then return 0 (2) s 0 (3) while m and n are even (4) m m/2, n n/2, s s +1 (5) while n is even (6) n n/2 (7) while m 0 (8) while m is even (9) m m/2 (10) if m < n (11) Swap(m, n) (12) m m n (13) m m/2 (14) return 2 s n

183 Bezout s Lemma Lemma. There exists integers a and b such that gcd(m,n) = am+bn.

184 Bezout s Lemma Lemma. There exists integers a and b such that gcd(m,n) = am+bn. Proof. Let d > gcd(m,n) be the smallest positive integer on the form d = am+bn. Write m = cd +r with 0 < r < d. Then d > r = m cd = m c(am+bn) = (1 ca)m+( cb)n, a contradiction! Thus, r = 0 and d m. Similarly, d n.

185 Extended Euclidean Algorithm (Recursive Version) ExtendedEuclidean(m, n) (1) if m mod n = 0 (2) return (0, 1) (3) else (4) (x,y) ExtendedEuclidean(n,m mod n) (5) return (y,x y m/n ) If (x,y) ExtendedEuclidean(m,n) then gcd(m,n) = xm+yn.

186 Coprimality (Relative Primality) Definition. Two integers m and n are coprime if their greatest common divisor is 1. Fact. If a and n are coprime, then there exists a b such that ab = 1 mod n.

187 Coprimality (Relative Primality) Definition. Two integers m and n are coprime if their greatest common divisor is 1. Fact. If a and n are coprime, then there exists a b such that ab = 1 mod n. Excercise: Why is this so?

188 Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) Theorem. (Sun Tzu 400 AC) Let n 1,...,n k be positive pairwise coprime integers and let a 1,...,a k be integers. Then the equation system x = a 1 mod n 1 x = a 2 mod n 2 x = a 3 mod n 3. x = a k mod n k has a unique solution in {0,..., i n i 1}.

189 Constructive Proof of CRT 1. Set N = n 1 n 2... n k. N 2. Find r i and s i such that r i n i +s i n i = 1 (Bezout). 3. Note that s i N n i = 1 r i n i = { 1 (mod ni ) 0 (mod n j ) if j i 4. The solution to the equation system becomes: x = k i=1 ( ) N s i a i n i

190 The Multiplicative Group The set Z n = {0 a < n : gcd(a,n) = 1} forms a group, since: Closure. It is closed under multiplication modulo n. Associativity. For x,y,z Z n : (xy)z = x(yz) mod n. Identity. For every x Z n: 1 x = x 1 = x. Inverse. For every a Z n exists b Z n such that: ab = 1 mod n.

191 Lagrange s Theorem Theorem. If H is a subgroup of a finite group G, then H divides G. Proof. 1. Define ah = {ah : h H}. This gives an equivalence relation x y x = yh h H on G. 2. The map φ a,b : ah bh, defined by φ a,b (x) = ba 1 x is a bijection, so ah = bh for a,b G.

192 Euler s Phi-Function (Totient Function) Definition. Euler s Phi-function φ(n) counts the number of integers 0 < a < n relatively prime to n.

193 Euler s Phi-Function (Totient Function) Definition. Euler s Phi-function φ(n) counts the number of integers 0 < a < n relatively prime to n. Clearly: φ(p) = p 1 when p is prime.

194 Euler s Phi-Function (Totient Function) Definition. Euler s Phi-function φ(n) counts the number of integers 0 < a < n relatively prime to n. Clearly: φ(p) = p 1 when p is prime. Similarly: φ(p k ) = p k p k 1 when p is prime and k > 1.

195 Euler s Phi-Function (Totient Function) Definition. Euler s Phi-function φ(n) counts the number of integers 0 < a < n relatively prime to n. Clearly: φ(p) = p 1 when p is prime. Similarly: φ(p k ) = p k p k 1 when p is prime and k > 1. ) In general: φ( i pk i i = ( i p k i p k 1 i ).

196 Euler s Phi-Function (Totient Function) Definition. Euler s Phi-function φ(n) counts the number of integers 0 < a < n relatively prime to n. Clearly: φ(p) = p 1 when p is prime. Similarly: φ(p k ) = p k p k 1 when p is prime and k > 1. ) In general: φ( i pk i i = ( i p k i p k 1 i Excercise: How does this follow from CRT? ).

197 Fermat s and Euler s Theorems Theorem. (Fermat) If b Z p b p 1 = 1 mod p. and p is prime, then Theorem. (Euler) If b Z n, then bφ(n) = 1 mod n.

198 Fermat s and Euler s Theorems Theorem. (Fermat) If b Z p b p 1 = 1 mod p. and p is prime, then Theorem. (Euler) If b Z n, then bφ(n) = 1 mod n. Proof. Note that Z n = φ(n). b generates a subgroup b of Z n, so b divides φ(n) and b φ(n) = 1 mod n.

199 Multiplicative Group of a Prime Order Field Definition. A group G is called cyclic if there exists an element g such that each element in G is on the form g x for some integer x. Theorem. If p is prime, then Z p is cyclic.

200 Multiplicative Group of a Prime Order Field Definition. A group G is called cyclic if there exists an element g such that each element in G is on the form g x for some integer x. Theorem. If p is prime, then Z p is cyclic. Every group of prime order is cyclic. Why?

201 Multiplicative Group of a Prime Order Field Definition. A group G is called cyclic if there exists an element g such that each element in G is on the form g x for some integer x. Theorem. If p is prime, then Z p is cyclic. Every group of prime order is cyclic. Why? Why is there no cyclic multiplicative group Z p, with prime p, except the trivial case Z 2?

202 Multiplicative Group of a Prime Order Field Definition. A group G is called cyclic if there exists an element g such that each element in G is on the form g x for some integer x. Theorem. If p is prime, then Z p is cyclic. Every group of prime order is cyclic. Why? Why is there no cyclic multiplicative group Z p, with prime p, except the trivial case Z 2? Keep in mind the difference between: Z p with prime order as an additive group, Z p with non-prime order as a multiplicative group. group G p of prime order.

203 Public-Key Cryptography

204 Cipher (Symmetric Cryptosystem) c = E k (m) m = E 1 k (c) m E c E 1 m Alice k k Bob

205 Public-Key Cryptosystem c = E pk (m) m = D sk (c) m E c D m Alice pk sk Bob

206 History of Public-Key Cryptography Public-key cryptography was discovered: By Ellis, Cocks, and Williamson at the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) in the UK in the early 1970s (not public until 1997). Independently by Merkle in 1974 (Merkle s puzzles). Independently in its discrete-logarithm based form by Diffie and Hellman in 1977, and instantiated in 1978 (key-exchange). Independently in its factoring-based form by Rivest, Shamir and Adleman in 1977.

207 Public-Key Cryptography Definition. A public-key cryptosystem is a tuple (Gen, E, D) where, Gen is a probabilistic key generation algorithm that outputs key pairs (pk, sk), E is a (possibly probabilistic) encryption algorithm that given a public key pk and a message m in the plaintext space M pk outputs a ciphertext c, and D is a decryption algorithm that given a secret key sk and a ciphertext c outputs a plaintext m, such that D sk (E pk (m)) = m for every (pk,sk) and m M pk.

208 RSA

209 The RSA Cryptosystem (1/2) Key Generation. Choose n/2-bit primes p and q randomly and define N = pq. Choose e in Z φ(n) and compute d = e 1 mod φ(n). Output the key pair ((N,e),(p,q,d)), where (N,e) is the public key and (p,q,d) is the secret key.

210 The RSA Cryptosystem (2/2) Encryption. Encrypt a plaintext m Z N by computing c = m e mod N. Decryption. Decrypt a ciphertext c by computing m = c d mod N.

211 Why Does It Work? (m e mod N) d mod N = m ed mod N

212 Why Does It Work? (m e mod N) d mod N = m ed mod N = m 1+tφ(N) mod N

213 Why Does It Work? (m e mod N) d mod N = m ed mod N = m 1+tφ(N) mod N ( = m 1 m φ(n)) t mod N

214 Why Does It Work? (m e mod N) d mod N = m ed mod N = m 1+tφ(N) mod N ( = m 1 m φ(n)) t mod N = m 1 t mod N

215 Why Does It Work? (m e mod N) d mod N = m ed mod N = m 1+tφ(N) mod N ( = m 1 m φ(n)) t mod N = m 1 t mod N = m mod N

216 Implementing RSA Modular arithmetic. Greatest common divisor. Primality test.

217 Modular Arithmetic (1/3) Basic operations on O(n)-bit integers using school book implementations. Operation Running time Addition O(n) Subtraction O(n) Multiplication O(n 2 ) Modular reduction O(n 2 ) Greatest common divisor O(n 2 )

218 Modular Arithmetic (1/3) Basic operations on O(n)-bit integers using school book implementations. Operation Running time Addition O(n) Subtraction O(n) Multiplication O(n 2 ) Modular reduction O(n 2 ) Greatest common divisor O(n 2 ) Optimal algorithms for multiplication and modular reduction are much faster.

219 Modular Arithmetic (1/3) Basic operations on O(n)-bit integers using school book implementations. Operation Running time Addition O(n) Subtraction O(n) Multiplication O(n 2 ) Modular reduction O(n 2 ) Greatest common divisor O(n 2 ) Optimal algorithms for multiplication and modular reduction are much faster. What about modular exponentiation?

220 Modular Arithmetic (2/3) Square-and-Multiply. SquareAndMultiply(x, e, N) 1 z 1 2 i =index of most significant one 3 while i 0 do 4 z z z mod N 5 if e i = 1 then z z x mod N 6 i i 1 7 return z

221 Modular Arithmetic (3/3) Although the basic is the same, the most efficient algorithms for exponentiation is faster. Computing g x 1,...,g x k can be done much faster! Computing i [k] gx i i can be done much faster!

222 Modular Arithmetic (3/3) Although the basic is the same, the most efficient algorithms for exponentiation is faster. Computing g x 1,...,g x k can be done much faster! Computing i [k] gx i i can be done much faster! How about side channel attacks?