THE NATIONAL JUDICIAL COLLEGE

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1 THE NATIONAL JUDICIAL COLLEGE E DUCATION I NNOVATION A DVANCING J USTICE COMPUTERS & DIGITAL EVIDENCE DIVIDER 17 Professor Thomas K. Clancy OBJECTIVES: After this session, you will be able to: 1. Define why police officers want to search and seize computers; 2. Describe the two different ways that appellate courts analyze computers (as containers or as special approach ); 3. Summarize whether technological search programs can reliably sort information; and 4. Analyze whether the amount of intermingled documents should change your analysis in allowing a computer search or seizure or not. REQUIRED READING: PAGE Thomas K. Clancy, Fourth Amendment Considerations Involving Digital Evidence (May 2011) [NCJRL PowerPoint]...1 RECOMMENDED READING PAGE Thomas K. Clancy, The Fourth Amendment Aspects of Computer Searches and Seizures: A Perspective and a Primer, 75 MISSISSIPPI L.J. 193 (2005)...37 SI: THE FOURTH AMENDMENT: COMPREHENSIVE SEARCH & SEIZURE TRAINING FOR TRIAL JUDGES MAY 23-26, 2011 RENO, NV WB/KZ

2 Fourth Amendment considerations involving digital evidence Thomas K. Clancy Director National Center for Justice and the Rule of Law The University of Mississippi School of Law copyright, Thomas K. Clancy, all rights reserved, the good old days Data Generated in billion gigabytes 12 stacks of books reaching to the Sun 3 million times all the books ever written need 2+ billion ipods to hold it 1

3 the crime scene Cyber Crime Computer crime Network crime Computer-related crime Computer-facilitated crime High tech crime Internet crime or Online crime Information age crime Any crime in which a computer or other digital device plays a role, and thus involves digital evidence. new crimes & new techniques computer as Target unauthorized access, damage, theft spam, viruses, worms denial of service attacks computer as Tool fraud threats, harassment child pornography computer as Container from drug dealer records to how to commit murder 2

4 just a murder! studied currents researched bodies of water including San Fran Bay how to make cement anchors tide charts had 5 home computers Digital Evidence Information of probative value that is stored or transmitted in binary form and may be relied upon in court. two types: 1. user created 2. computer created Digital Evidence User-created Text (documents, , chats, instant messages) Address books Bookmarks Databases Images (photos, drawings, diagrams) Video and sound (films, voice mail,.wav files) Web pages Hidden files 3

5 Computer-created Digital Evidence headers Metadata Activity it logs Browser cache, history, cookies Backup and registry files Configuration files Printer spool files Swap files and other transient data Surveillance tapes, recordings meta data Information about the Data track changes function 4

6 digital camera images -- metadata date, time taken exposure information (lens, focal length, flash, F-stop, shutter speed) serial number description of photograph location where taken State v. Carroll, 778 N.W.2d 1 (Wis. 2010) metadata! possession of firearm by felon pic of self holding semiautomatic weapon expert: metadata: date and time image created date and time automatically updated by cell phone towers sources of digital evidence 5

7 phones, PDAs cameras transformer camera mp3 player 6

8 Digital devices games Digital storage devices 7

9 Digital devices Digital picture frames wallets 8

10 Digital devices wireless networks & devices More 9

11 Digital device GPS fax machine check out the video 2009 dodge ram with wi fi 10

12 Digital surveillance Chicago s 911 Network 11

13 lindsey lohan GPS devices RFID implants how they work: benefits? 12

14 Criminals using technology Challenges Increasing ubiquity of digital devices Convergence Growth of data storage capacities Reduction in size of devices and media Crime migration to Internet lots of developing issues applying established rules to digital evidence containers example: search incident to arrest 13

15 published search and seizure appellate ct. decisions 253 total 2009 STATE 13 (10) FEDERAL 19 (16) 173 Child Porn (10) 9 (5) 17 (13) 14 (9) (9) 14 (8) 68 % (8) 14 (11) 20 (15) 6 (4) (6) 6 (6) green - total cases 2002 Pre (7) 22 (12) 7 (6) 33 (18) yellow - Child Porn total 117 (78) 136 (95) applicability and satisfaction IN EVERY CASE, Does the 4th Apply? A. gov't activity: "Search" or "Seizure" B. Protected interest: liberty, possession, privacy 2. Is it Satisfied? "Reasonable" Warrant Clause requirements [3. Remedies?] Digital Evidence Searches and Seizures 1. Is the Fourth Amendment applicable? inside the box vs. outside the box 2. Is it satisfied? two approaches to digital evidence conceptual difficulties of applying traditional doctrines to digital evidence 14

16 "inside the box, outside the box" The Box Outside the box: network investigations typical steps in digital investigation Outside the box: network investigations Tracing electronic communications Identifying suspect and account Getting to and inside the Box: Identifying who was at keyboard when crime occurred Locating computers to be searched Obtaining warrant or consent to search Searching and seizing evidence forensic analysis applicability issues inside the box when does person have REP in data in computer? case law has examined variety of situations: 1. person's own computer info on screen data in computer 2. work and gov't computers monitoring and other policies that affect REP who has access to computer? 15

17 uncertain F/A applicability outside the box non-consensual interception of communications, etc, over the Internet to another party example: possible analogies: its like a letter in the mail its like numbers dialed on a telephone its like any info possessed by third party statutory protections tend to supercede -- outside the box Congress /states have enacted some statutory regulation of computer network investigations: Stored Communications Act Wiretap Act Pen Register / Trap and Trace Sender (AOL) obtaining evidence AOL Server Temporary Storage Earthlink Server Temporary Storage Recipient (Earthlink) 16

18 Sender (AOL) Stored Communications Act AOL Server Temporary Storage Earthlink Server Temporary Storage Recipient (Earthlink) Search Warrant Sender wiretap (content) pen/trap (non content) AOL Server Temporary Storage Earthlink Server Temporary Storage Search Warrant Recipient Traditional F/A doctrine No F/A Protection from 3rd Party Disclosures to Gov't Rationale: Risk Analysis -- Voluntary Exposure misplaced belief to whom voluntarily confides will not reveal secret Miller such risk is probably inherent in the conditions of human society" Hoffa vol. exposure to public eliminates F/A protection Katz 17

19 voluntary disclosure assume risk that third party will disclose information, item to gov't Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks file-sharing technology --- creates virtual networks criminal activity: Copyright Infringement Computer Hacking Worms -- Viruses -- Theft of information Child Exploitation and Pornography How Gnutella Works 18

20 each red dot: computer offering known CP video file -- 2 day period, July, 2009 law enforcement joins file sharing networks -- and seek known child porn images Questions: Search w/in meaning of 4th Amendment? Does user connected to Internet via P2P have reasonable expectation of privacy in files in shared folders? 19

21 no REP in P2P U.S. v. Ganoe, 538 F.3d 1117 (9th Cir. 2008) P2P network "To argue that Ganoe lacked the technical savvy or good sense to configure Lime Wire to prevent access to his child pornography files is like saying that he did not know enough to close his drapes." same principles applied --- No F/A protection against 1. disclosure of subscriber info by ISPs 2. recovered from recipient Commonwealth v. Proetto, 771 A.2d 823 (Pa. Sup. Ct. 2001) 3. Internet chat rooms 4. Posting Info on a Website doctrines: voluntary exposure assumption of risk application of principles to Virtual worlds 2. cloud computing 3. web based data storage what are the relevant considerations? 20

22 virtual worlds virtual Porn rooms in virtual world 21

23 getting more cloudy! on line storage 22

24 Quon: some answers? cop sent text messages to wife, mistress via gov't issued pager agency reviewed printouts obtained from provider to determine if needed more capacity for police business issues: 1. Quon have REP in messages? 2. Wife / mistress have REP in messages? 3. Was search R --? Formal Written Policy police pager policies explicitly said user had no REP could audit, monitor, or log all activity not for personal use Quon aware of and signed "Informal Policy" Lt. Duke: you pay overages, will not audit Quon: NO answers "case touches issues of far reaching significance," but disposed "by settled principles determining when a search is reasonable concern: "broad holding" on REP "vis-à-vis employer-provided p technological equipment might have implications for future cases that cannot be predicted" 1. assumed Quon / women had REP 2. search reasonable - did not even decide if Scalia or plurality approaches in O'Connor v. Ortego proper! 23

25 Reasonable as to Quon because... had very "limited" REP legitimate gov't purpose for search scope of search reasonable redacted transcripts -- on duty hours only 2 months examined rejected least intrusive means etc Respondents: Reasonable as to the Women? if S/ unreasonable as to Quon, also unreasonable as to correspondents no argument unreasonable even if Quon s/reasonable Court: "In light of this litigating position," since search reasonable as to Quon, "other respondents cannot prevail" dicta on REP analysis -- some possible factors was Duke's statements change in OPD policy did Duke have "fact or appearance" of authority to make change / guarantee REP should public/ private employees be treated differently gov't had interests to review messages: performance evaluations litigation on lawfulness of police actions complying w/ open records laws 24

26 Rapid changes in communication many employers expect / tolerate personal use often increases worker efficiency employer policies concerning communications shape REP, "especially" when "clearly communicated" some state statutes require employers to notify when monitoring electronic communications uncertain evolution of workplace norms / law's treatment Cell phone / text messaging pervasive -- hence: one view -- "essential means or necessary instruments for self-expression, even selfidentification" another view -- because of ubiquity / affordability employees can buy own Scalia, concurring Applicability discussion unnecessary and exaggerated rejects "implication" that where electronic privacy is concerned we should decide less than we otherwise would -- The-times-they-are-a-changin' is a feeble excuse for disregard of duty. 25

27 courts/ litigants likely to use dicta as "heavy-handed hint about how they should proceed" Standard unworkable: "Any rule that requires evaluating whether a given gadget is a 'necessary instrument for self-expression, even self-identification,' on top of assessing the degree to which 'the law's treatment of workplace norms has evolved,' is (to put it mildly) unlikely to yield objective answers." Smiling Bob meets the 6th Circuit Is protected by the Fourth Amendment? Warshak #1, 532 F.3d 521 (6th Cir. 2008) (en banc) QUESTION not ripe: privacy expectations "may well shift over time" "assuredly shifts from internet-service agreement to internet-service agreement" requires considerable knowledge about everevolving technologies" 26

28 variety of internet-service agreements Service providers... will "not... read or disclose subscribers' to anyone except authorized users" "will not intentionally monitor or disclose any private message" but "reserves the right" to do so in some cases reserves right "to pre-screen, refuse or move any Content that is available via the Service" s will be provided to government on request other individuals will have access to can use information user has no REP in any communications U.S. v. Warshak (#2), F.3d, 2010 WL (Dec. 14, 2010) SCA subpoena on less than probable cause to get s from ISP violates 4th Amend (but got good faith reliance) analogy to letters / phone calls ISP = post office / telephone company subscriber agreement: limited ISP access to s only to protect ISP not holding: subscriber agreement will never be broad enough to snuff out REP... if ISP expresses intention to audit, inspect, and monitor s, that might be enough Digital Evidence Searches and Seizures 1. Is the Fourth Amendment applicable? 2. Is it satisfied? two approaches to digital evidence conceptual difficulties of applying traditional doctrines to digital evidence 27

29 What Is Reasonable? The core 4th Amendment concept -- its meaning serves to regulate: * under what circumstances s/s may occur * scope of the intrusion where you come out is a function of where you go in Are computers merely containers or something "Special?" view #1: Data are Documents / Container Analogy view #2: Special Approach to S/ of data on computers Document Searches Andresen v. Maryland: warrant for -- specific docs re -- lot 13 T "together w/ other fruits, instrumentalities... of crime" upheld s/ of law office cannot use complex scheme to avoid detection when police have PC suspect has evidence 28

30 Andresen: " Some innocuous documents will be examined, at least cursorily" officials & judges must assure S/ minimizes unwarranted intrusions upon privacy PLAIN VIEW scope of S/: determined by objects sought requirements: 1. prior valid intrusion 2. observing object in plain view 3. incriminating character of object immediately apparent (has Probable Cause) 4. inadvertence requirement explicitly rejected Horton v. California, 496 U.S. 128 (1990) contents of unopened files Plain view & computers View#1 data analogous to document search: can look at all data to ascertain value View2 "special approach" imposes limitations on search to restrict application of plain view doctrine 29

31 View #1: Analogy to filing cabinets/containers RATIONALE: Computer is a Container cannot anticipate form of "records" "no principled distinction" between digital & paper record scope: includes all containers reasonably likely to have items described in warrant = = View #2: Rejects Document S/ Container Analogy must take special approach to s/ of data contained on computers premise: writings & computers: fundamentally different, both in degree and in kind example of special approach U.S. v. Payton, 573 F.3d 859 (9th Cir. 2008) FACTS: warrant for search of financial records in drug case did not explicitly authorize s/ of computers "It is true... that pay/owe sheets indicating drug sales were physically capable of being kept on Payton's computer." HELD: s/ violated F/A Contrary ruling "would eliminate any incentive for officers to seek explicit judicial authorization for searches of computers." 30

32 Why Computers are "Special" vast array of information -- documents -- financial records -- business records -- E- mail -- internet access paths -- deleted materials ability to sort, process, and transfer info means for communication via connects to internet important privacy concerns CAUTION: technology rapidly growing and changing some underlying concerns with Wholesale Seizures 1. Potential disruption and invasion of business, professional practice, personal lives 2. General Warrants -- a principal vice the Fourth Amendment was supposed to prohibit! some "special" approach methods to limit scope of search warrant sets out S/ limitations restrict by file name, extension, date range Warrant sets out S/ methodology key word s/ for relevant terms ENCASE, FTL, etc need 2nd warrant for intermingled documents use third party to sort taint teams, special masters, magistrate review goal: Limits what is in Plain View 31

33 U.S. v. Comprehensive Drug Testing, 579 F.3d 989 (9th Cir. 2009) warrant for drug tests of 10 players actual seizure was: 25 page list of all BB players, who were tested for drugs during 2003 season list of positive drug tests of 8 of 10 players sought medical records of individuals in 13 other sports, 3 businesses, and 3 sports competitions en banc decision #1 1. Magistrates "should insist" gov't waive reliance upon plain view doctrine 2. Segregation and redaction must be either done by specialized personnel or an independent third party. -- if done by gov't computer personnel, must agree in warrant application that computer personnel will not disclose to investigators any info other than that which is target of warrant 3. Warrants/subpoenas must disclose actual risks of destruction of info and prior efforts to seize the info in other judicial fora 4. search protocol must be designed to uncover only info for which gov't has probable cause and only that info may be examined by case agents 5. gov't must destroy or, if recipient may lawfully possess it, return non-responsive data, keeping issuing magistrate informed about when it has done so and what it has kept 32

34 CDT -- rehearing en banc #2 new opinion: 621 F.3d 1162 (9th Cir. 2010) majority: views digital evidence as special category rejects plain view requires prior approval in warrant for execution procedures CDT -- rehearing en banc #2 goals: maintain privacy of materials intermingled with seizable materials avoid turning limited search for particular information into general search "obvious case of deliberate overreaching by the gov't... to seize data as to which it lacked PC" rejection of special execution rules: U.S. v. Brooks, 427 F.3d 1245 (10th Cir. 2005) Rejecting requirement that Govt describe specific search methodology "This court has never required warrants to contain a particularized computer search strategy. We have simply held that officers must describe with particularity the objects of their search." 33

35 Constitutional basis for mandating execution procedures? 1. Andresen: for document S/ responsible officials, including judicial officials, must take care to assure that they are conducted in a manner that minimizes unwarranted intrusions upon privacy 2. Plain language: Warrant Clause requires -- oath probable cause particular description of place to be s/ Warrant Clause or Reasonableness Clause? Dalia / Grubbs : reject view: warrants must specify manner of execution executing officers decide how to execute warrant Nonetheless, "the manner in which a warrant is executed is subject to later judicial review as to its reasonableness." U.S. v. Grubbs, 547 US 90 (2006) traditional two step F/A approach 1. is warrant properly issued? apply warrant clause requirements 2. is execution proper? no special rules for digital cases sole Q is R apply Andresen/ Dalia / Grubbs 34

36 Intermingled Documents Should amount of materials change analysis? Diaries often contain evidence unrelated to crime Filing cabinets often hold... personal items Different rules for... filing cabinets, diaries, books, floppy drives, hard drives, and other storage devices? Supreme Court rejects ranking containers at one point, tried to distinguish among containers: luggage -- high expectation of privacy other containers did not "deserve full protection of F/A" REJECTED language of F/A: "protects people and their effects, whether they are 'personal' or 'impersonal'" "impossible to perceive any objective criteria" for viable distinction: "What one person may put into a suitcase, another may put into a paper bag." special boxes! 35

37 is "Special approach" inconsistent with Supreme Court cases? 1. U.S. v. Grubbs, 547 U.S. 90 (2006) 2. Dalia v. U.S., 441 U.S. 238 (1979) both reject implicit warrant issuance requirements 3. Andresen v. Maryland, 427 U.S. 463 (1976) permits broad document search 4. U.S. v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798 (1982) rejects distinctions between containers pizza! registration agendas publications course descriptions scholarship info this course Power points, videos, binder materials available at: WWW. NCJRL.org 36

38 FILE:C:\WINDOWS\DESKTOP\MYBRIE~1\CLANCY Dec. 12/13/05 Tue 12:57PM THE FOURTH AMENDMENT ASPECTS OF COMPUTER SEARCHES AND SEIZURES: A PERSPECTIVE AND A PRIMER Thomas K. Clancy * I. Introduction II. The Nature of Computer Searches: Searches for Data A. Document Searches B. Views Whether Computer Data are Documents Data Are Forms of Records/Container Analogy Rejection of the Document Search and Container Analogy: A ASpecial Approach@ Discussion of the Premises of the ASpecial Approach@ a. Should File Names or Types Limit the Scope of a Search? b. Do Technological Search Programs Make the File Cabinet Analogy Inadequate? c. Does the Nature or Amount of Material Make D ir e c to r, N a tio n a l C e n te r fo r J u s tic e a n d th e R u le o f L a w, a n d V is itin g P r o fe s s o r, U n iv e r s ity o f M is s is s ip p i S c h o o l o f L a w. I th a n k D o n M a s o n a n d M a r c H a r r o ld fo r th e ir c o m m e n ts o n a n e a r lie r d r a ft o f th is a r tic le. T h e N a tio n a l C e n te r fo r J u s tic e a n d th e R u le o f L a w is s u p p o r te d b y G r a n t N o D D - V X a w a r d e d b y th e B u r e a u o f J u s tic e A s s is ta n c e. T h e B u r e a u o f J u s tic e A s s is ta n c e is a c o m - p o n e n t o f th e O ffic e o f J u s tic e P rog r a m s, w h ic h in c lu d e s th e B u r e a u o f J u s tic e S ta tis tic s, th e N a tio n a l In s titu te o f J u s tic e, th e O ffic e o f J u v e n ile J u s tic e a n d D e lin q u e n c y P r e v e n tio n, a n d th e O ffic e o f V ic tim s o f C rim e. P o in ts o f vie w o r o p in io n s in th is a r tic le a r e th o s e o f th e a u th o r a n d d o n o t re p r e s e n t th e o ffic ia l p o s itio n o f th e U n ite d S ta te s D e p a r tm e n t o f J u s tic e

39 F IL E :C : \ W P 5 1 \ \ C L A N C Y D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :5 7 P M M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 Computers Different From Other Containers? d. Limitations Based on Search Execution Procedures in Warrants III. Selected Fourth Amendment Applicability Issues A. Expectation of Privacy Analysis In General The Location of the ComputerCIn General Data on Work ComputersCGovernmental Employer Data on Work ComputersCPrivate Employer Information Obtained from Third Parties Joint Users; Password Protected Files B. Private Searches and Seizures In General Government Agents Replication and AContext@ Issues IV. Selected Satisfaction Issues A. Probable Cause B. Consent In General Scope of Consent Third Party Consent C. Particularity Claims In General Varieties of Computer Searches a. Searches for Computer Equipment b. Searches for Data D. Plain View E. Execution Issues On-site/Off-site Searches; Intermingled Documents Use of Experts Deleted Files V. Conclusion

40 FILE:C:\WP51\75-1\CLANCY Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:57PM 2005] COMPUTER SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 195 I. INTRODUCTION This article is called a Aprimer@ because it outlines the application of Fourth Amendment principles to the search and seizure of computers and the digital information that is stored in them. It does not purport to address every Fourth Amendment issue that may arise in the computer context because, for many issues, the mere fact that a computer is involved does not change the analysis. Instead, it focuses on situations that are influenced by the fact that the object to be searched and seized is a computer or the data stored on it. Like a traditional primer, this article reports how courts have addressed Fourth Amendment applicability and satisfaction issues in the computer context. 39

41 F IL E :C : \ W P 5 1 \ \ C L A N C Y D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :5 7 P M M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 A primer is generally thought of as not espousing a point of view. This article, however, departs from that role in two important respects. First, in discussing the nature of computer and digital evidence searches and seizures, it rejects the view that those intrusions require a Aspecial approach,@ that is, that unique Fourth Amendment rules are needed to regulate them; instead, this article adopts the view that computers are containers and the data they contain are mere forms of documents. This is to say that the principles applicable to document searches have equal application to electronic data searches. Second, it rejects expansion of the private search doctrine, used by some courts, which permits government agents to open data files that had not been opened during a preceding private party search and still not be a search within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment based on the theory that the Acontext@ in which the file was found negated any reasonable expectation of privacy. Underlying both of these points of view is the perspective that a computer is a container of containers of documents, that is, each individual file is a separate containerbjust like each manila file in a filing cabinet is a containerbthat requires a separate opening to determine what is inside. This is to say that the mere fact that an item to be searched or seized is electronic evidence does not fundamentally change the Fourth Amendment analytical structure that governs. II. THE NATURE OF COMPUTER SEARCHES: SEARCHES FOR DATA There are two principal approaches to searches involving electronic data stored on computers. One view asserts that a computer is a form of a container and that the data in electronic storage are mere forms of documents. A second view maintains that searches for data require a Aspecial approach,@ requiring unique procedures and detailed justifications. This article concludes that the first view is correct: computers are containers. As with all containers, they have the ability to hold 40

42 w W FILE:C:\WP51\75-1\CLANCY Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:57PM 2005] COMPUTER SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 197 physical evidence, including such items as wires, microchips, and hard drives. They also contain electronic evidence, that is, a series of digitally stored 0s and 1s that, when combined with a computer program, yield such items as images, words, and spreadsheets. Accordingly, the traditional standards of the Fourth Amendment regulate obtaining the evidence in containers that happen to be computers. A. Document Searches In Andresen v. Maryland, 1 the Supreme Court outlined the broad parameters of a permissible records search. In upholding the search of an office for documents that sought evidence of the crime of false pretenses by an attorney involved in real estate settlement activity, the Court asserted: U n d e r in ve s tig a tio n w a s a c o m p le x re a l e s ta te s c h e m e h o s e e xis te n c e c o u ld b e p ro ve d o n ly b y p ie c in g to g e th e r m a n y b its o f e vid e n c e. L ik e a jig s a w p u zzle, th e w h o le Ap ic tu re@ o f p e titio n e r's fa ls e - p re te n s e s c h e m e... c o u ld b e s h o w n o n ly b y p la c in g in th e p ro p e r p la c e th e m a n y p ie c e s o f e vid e n c e th a t, ta k e n s in g ly, w o u ld s h o w c o m p a ra tive ly little. T h e c o m p le xity o f a n ille g a l s c h e m e m a y n o t b e u s e d a s a s h ie ld to a vo id d e te c t io n w h e n th e S ta te h a s d e m o n s tra te d p ro b a b le c a u s e to b e lie ve th a t a c rim e h a s b e e n c o m m itte d a n d p ro b a b le c a u s e to b e lie ve th a t e vid e n c e o f th is c r im e is in th e s u s p e c t's p o s s e s s io n. Although authorizing a broad document search, the Court observed: e re c o g n ize th a t th e re a re g ra ve d a n g e rs in h e re n t in e xe c u t in g a w a rra n t a u th o rizin g a s e a r c h a n d s e izu re o f a p e r s o n 's p a p e rs th a t a re n o t n e c e s s a rily p re s e n t in e xe c u t in g a w a r ra n t to s e a r c h fo r p h ys ic a l o b je c ts w h o s e re le va n c e is m o re e a s ily a s c e rta in a b le. In s e a r c h e s fo r U.S , ( ). 2 Id. a t n

43 F IL E :C : \ W P 5 1 \ \ C L A N C Y D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :5 7 P M M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 p a p e rs, it is c e rta in th a t s o m e in n o c u o u s d o c u m e n ts w ill b e e xa m in e d, a t le a s t c u rsorily, in o rd e r to d e te rm in e w h e th e r th e y a re, in fa c t, a m o n g th o s e p a p e r s a u th o rize d to b e s e ize d. S im ila r d a n g e rs, o f c o u r s e, a re p re s e n t in e xec u tin g a w a rra n t fo r th e As e izu re@ o f te le p h o n e c o n ve r s a tio n s. In b o th k in d s o f s e a r c h e s, re s p o n s ib le o ffic ia ls, in c lu d in g ju d ic ia l o ffic ia ls, m u s t ta k e c a r e to a s s u re th a t th e y a re c o n d u c te d in a m a n n e r th a t m in im ize s u n w a rra n te d in trus io n s u p o n p riva c 3 y. Several of the themes articulated by Andresen have been applied by lower courts to searches of computers for data. Those considerations include the complexity of the crime, whether innocuous files can be examined, and minimization procedures to reduce the intrusion upon the individual's protected interests. Antecedent to those themes, however, is the debate whether Andresen's framework for document searches is applicable to computer searches. 3 Id. a t n

44 FILE:C:\WP51\75-1\CLANCY Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:57PM 2005] COMPUTER SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 199 B. Views Whether Computer Data Are Documents 1. Data are Forms of Records/Container Analogy Many courts view data in computer storage as a form of a document. Hence, a warrant that authorizes a search for Awritings@ or Arecords@ permits a search of computer files. 4 This is to say that the government need not know the exact Aform that records may take.@ 5 Indeed, this view asserts that there is Ano principled distinction between records kept electronically and those in paper form@ 6 and, hence, there is Ano justification for favoring those who are capable of storing their records on computer over those who keep hard copies of their records.@ 7 In both instances, consistent with Andresen, Ainnocuous documents may be scanned to ascertain their relevancy@ 8 in Arecognition of `the reality that few people keep documents of their criminal transactions in a folder marked `[crime] records.'@ 9 4 S e e U n ite d S ta te s v. H u n te r, 1 3 F. S u p p. 2 d 5 7 4, (D. V t ) (w a r - r a n t a u th o r izin g s e a r c h fo r Ar e c o r d s@ p e r m itte d s e a r c h o f Ac o m p u t e r s, d is k s, a n d s im ila r p r o p e r ty@) ; U n ite d S ta te s v. M u s s o n, F. S u p p , (D. C o lo ) (s e iz u r e o f c o m p u te r d is k e tte s a p p r o v e d u n d e r a w a r r a n t a u th o riz in g th e s e iz u r e o f Aa n y re c o r d s o r w ritin g s o f w h a ts o e v e r n a tu r e s h o w in g a n y b u s in e s s o r fin a n c ia l tra n s a c tio n s@) ; F r a s ier v. S ta te, N.E.2 d 4 4 9, 4 5 4, (In d. C t. A p p ) (w a r r a n t th a t a u th o r iz e d s e a r c h o f An o te s a n d o r r e c o r d s@ o f m a r iju a n a s a le s p e r m itte d p o lic e to e x a m in e c o m p u te r file s ); P e o p le v. G a ll, 3 0 P.3 d 1 4 5, (C o lo ) (w h e n w a r r a n t a u th o riz e d s e iz u r e o f Aw ritte n a n d p r in te d m a teria l@ in d ic a t in g a n in te n t to d o p h ysic a l h a r m to a p e r s o n o r b u ild in g p u r s u a n t to a n in v e s tig a tio n o f a c o n s p iracy to m u r d e r a n d u s e e x p lo s iv e s a g a in s t a fa c ility, s e iz u r e o f c o m p u te r s p e r m is s ib le b e c a u s e th e y w e r e Ar ea s o n a b ly lik e ly to s e r v e a s `c o n ta in e r s ' fo r w ritin g s, o r th e fu n c tio n a l e q u iv a le n t o f `w ritte n o r p r in t e d m a te r ia l'@) ; P e o p le v. L o o r ie, N.Y.S.2 d 4 8 3, (C o u n ty C t ) (w a r r a n t a u th o r izin g s e a r c h fo r Ar ec o r d s@ p e r m itte d s e a r c h o f c o m p u te r file s ); c f. U n ite d S ta te s v. T r iu m p h C a p ita l G r o u p, In c., F.R.D. 3 1 (D. C o n n ) (w a r r a n t a u th o r izin g s e a r c h fo r Afile r e c o r d s@ 43

45 F IL E :C : \ W P 5 1 \ \ C L A N C Y D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :5 7 P M M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 Courts adopting this view have often analogized computers to filing cabinets or to containers: h e p o e ] m a y s e a r c h e c a n a u o d b y e w a r - n c d g a n y c o n e r s a t a t c a n a t a a - s o n a b e c o n m s d e s c r e d e w a r n... T h c o n e r n a e q u a a p p a b n o n d n - a c h n o g a l o n e a t a a s o n a b e h o a n s s n g s. S a w a n t c a n n o t b e e e c d a n a e a n m o r p o s o f a n m a y k e, a n d e c o u h a a e d e s e o f g s a t a s r, o r e u n c n a l e q u n o m s e n u m e d a w a r n a s w e a s c o n e w h h e y a a s o n a b e b e 1 0 u n d. [T lic th lo tio th rize th ra t, in lu in ta in th lo tio th re re ly lik ly to ta in ite ib in th ra t. is ta in ra tio le is lly lic le to tra itio l, te lo ic Ac ta in rs@ th re re ly lik ly to ld in fo rm tio in le ta ib le fo rm im ila rly rra xp te to tic ip te ve ry fo rm ite re- ito ry in fo rm tio ta th re fo re rts ve ffirm th izu re th in th re im ila to th Af tio iva le t@ f, ite ra te in ra t, ll ta in rs in ic th re re ly lik ly to fo Following this view, computers have been said to be Areasonably likely to serve as `containers' for writings, or the functional in c lu d e d te x t, re m n a n ts, a n d fr a g m e n ts o f d e le te d file s ); U n ite d S ta te s v. H a r d in g, F. S u p p. 2 d 4 1 1, (S.D.N.Y ) (b e c a u s e p h o to g r a p h s m a y b e ta k e n b y d ig ita l o r film c a m e r a s a n d c a n b e s c a n n e d if in itia lly c a p tu r e d b y film, a w a r r a n t a u th o r izin g th e p o lic e to s e a r c h fo r Ap h o to g r a p h s@ a llo w e d a g e n ts to o p e n a n d in s p e c t g r a p h ic a l im a g e file s o n a z ip d is k ). 5 U n ite d S ta te s v. G a w rysia k, F. S u p p , (D.N.J ) (a p p r o v in g o f w a r r a n t to s e a r c h b u s in e s s o ffic e fo r e v id e n c e o f fr a u d ), a ff'd, F.3 d (3 d C ir ); a c c o r d U n ite d S ta te s v. H e n s o n, F.2 d , (6 th C ir ). 6 U n ite d S ta te s v. L ie v e r tz, F. S u p p. 2 d , (S.D. In d ). 7 U n ite d S ta te s v. H u n te r, 1 3 F. S u p p. 2 d 5 7 4, (D. V t ). 8 Id. a t ; a c c o r d U n ite d S ta te s v. G ray, 7 8 F. S u p p. 2 d 5 2 4, (E.D. V a ). 9 U n ite d S ta te s v. H u n te r, 1 3 F. S u p p. 2 d 5 7 4, (D. V t ) (q u o tin g U n ite d S ta te s v. R ile y, F.2 d 8 4 1, (2 d C ir )); a c c o r d U n ite d S ta te s v. M a a li M., F. S u p p. 2 d , (M.D. F la ). 1 0 P e o p le v. G a ll, 3 0 P.3 d 1 4 5, (C o lo ) (c ita tio n s o m itte d ); s e e a ls o U n ite d S ta te s v. A l- M arri, F. S u p p. 2 d 5 3 5, (S.D.N.Y ) (a c o m p u te r is a fo r m o f a c o n ta in e r ); P e o p le v. L o o r ie, N.Y.S.2 d 4 8 3, (C o u n - ty C t ) (s a m e ); U n ite d S ta te s v. B a rth, 2 6 F. S u p p. 2 d 9 2 9, (W.D. T e x ) (s a m e ). 44

46 FILE:C:\WP51\75-1\CLANCY Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:57PM 2005] COMPUTER SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 201 equivalent of `written or printed 11 This is despite the recognition that computer file searches present Aa heightened of intermingling of relevant and irrelevant material: A[t]oday computers and computer disks store most of the records and data belonging to businesses and 12 Accepting this view does not mean that wholesale searches of data on computers are permitted. 13 Instead, the courts look to traditional means to limit the scope of document searches, such as the nature of the criminal activity alleged 14 or the nature of 1 1 P e o p v. G a 3 0 P d 1 4 5, o U n d S s v. H u n r, 1 3 F. S u p p. 2 d 5 7 4, 5 8 1, V T h e o n e r h o w e v e r, m u s t b e p r o p e r d e e d. S e e n o s a n d a c c o m p a n g x 1 4 S e e G u e s t L e, F d 3 2 5, C ) a r r a n s e e k g s u b s c r e r r m a n o b s c e n v e s a n r e q u g a t c o m m u n a n s a n d c o m p u r r e c o r d s p e r e d o n s e s w e r e a s p a r - u r a s c c u m s n c e s p e r m d U n d S s v. K o w, 5 8 F. 3 d 4 2 3, C ) n e w a y m a k e w a r r a n t p a r u r s p e c s u s p e c d c r a l c o n d u c t b e g v e s a d b u t w a r r a n t v a w h e n a u o r e d h e s e u r e o f a e v e r y d o c u m e n t a n d c o m p u t e r w o u t d a t g h o w m s r e d s u s p e c d c r e U n d S s v. G e o r g e, F d 7 2, 7 6 d C ) e r e r e r e n c e v e n c e ' o f a v n o f a b r o a d c r a l s o r g e n e r a l a l a c p r o v e s n o r e a d a s c e r a b g u e e s r e e x e c u g o e r s a s w h a t m s s e e ; L a A c a d e m c. U n d S s, F d 1, 5-6 C ) a r r a n t a t u d r e m o v a l o f u r o r e c k a d s o f d o c u - m e n a n d c o m p u r - r e d m a r d e p a r u r q u e m e n t w h e n, r a, d n o t s p e c e o f a u d u n d e r v e s a n U n d S s v. H u n r, 1 3 F. S u p p. 2 d 5 7 4, V ) c u s s g n s o n s c o p e o f s e a r c h v o g m o n e y u n d e r g s c h e m e S e a r c h W a r r a n t r K - S p o p o r, c F , C a ) a r r a n t r c o m p u r r e c o r d s a n d d a w o u t g c r e u n d e r v e s a n, d p a r u r r e q u e n S v. A s k h a m, 8 6 P d , a s h. A p p ) a r r a n t s u n p a r u r w h e n n a m e s c r e u n d e r v e s a n o r w h e n d e s c r e s o m e d e s u s p e c d c r a l a c h e n c e, w h e n a c c u s e d s u s p e c d o f u s g c o m p u r m a k e r e a a n d e a c c u s a n s a n d w a r r a n t d e e e o f x t s a n d w e b s s b e s e a r c h e d a t c o u h a v e b e e n u s e d c o n d u c t a t a c w a s s u n U n d S s v. L o n g o, 7 0 F. S u p p. 2 d 2 2 5, le ll,.3 (C lo ). ite ta te te (D t. ). Ac ta in,@ ly fin in fra te yin te t. v. is.3 (6 th ir. (w ts in ib in fo tio in ity in tig tio ir in th ic tio te ta in to th lis te ffe tic la ir ta itte ); ite ta te (9 th ir. (o to tic la is to ify te im in in in tig te in lid it th iz At iz virtu lly ith in ic in ite la te to te im ); ite ta te.2 (2 ir. (AM fe to `e id io la tio im in ta tu te crim in tivity id ily ta in le id lin fo th tin ffic to ite to iz.@) fa ye tte y, In v. ite ta te.2 (5 th ir. (w th res lte in fo fiv tru lo ts te la te te ia ls vio la te th tic la ity re ir in te lia it id ify typ fr in tig tio ); ite ta te te (D t. (d is in lim ita tio in lvin la in ); In re fo rts Im ts In.,.R.D (C.D l. (w fo Aa ll te ta,@ ith lim itin to im in tig tio vio la te tic la ity irem t); ta te.3 (W (w ffic ie tly tic la it im in tig tio it ib in As ta il@ te im in tivity; te in te to th ts fa ls tio ta ils th typ te file ite to th ld to th tivity, it ffic ie t); ite ta te (W.D.N.Y 45

47 F IL E :C : \ W P 5 1 \ \ C L A N C Y D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :5 7 P M M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 the objects sought. 15 For example, searches of computers for evidence of child pornography and other sexual exploitation of children make up a shockingly large percentage of the decided cases; in response to particularity challenges in these cases, courts focus on the sufficiency of the allegations of criminal conduct 16 or the description of the objects 17 sought ) a r r a n t a t a u o r e d s e a r c h o f h a r d d r e a n d a n y d a d k s r w o d o c u m e n, o n e a p r o m s o r y n o, e n d T G L , c o n e d w e d e c b e d M C, a n d a p u r c h a s e a g r e e m e n t e n d 9 1 1, c o n e d e d e c e n d s p e c a d e s c r e d a r e a b e s e a r c h e d S v. N u c k o, S o. 2 d 7 2 4, A p p ) a r r a n t s e e k g r e c o r d s o f u s e d c a r b u s e s s c h a r g e d w r g e r y, o d o m e r m p e r g, a n d o e r c r a l v n s s u n t w h e n a u o r e d s e u r e o f d s r e d o n c o m p u r, c d g, b u t n o t d, m a g n e m e d o r a n y o e r e c n r m, h a r d d k s, c a s s e s, d k e s, p h o o p a l d e v e s a n d s e r v e r m a g n e t b a c k u p p e b e c a u s e n o g d c r e n o f o e r s e x e c u g w a r r a n 1 5 S e e U n d S s v. T h o r n, F d 6 7 9, C ) a r r a n t a t a u o e d s e a r c h a n d s e u r e o f e c n s r a g e m e d c o n g a g e s o f m o r s e n g a g e d s e x u a l a c a w e d e x a m a n o f c o n n o f v a r u s c o m p u r - r e d m e d U n d S s v. W o n g, F d 8 3 1, C ) a r r a n t a u o r g s e a r c h o f c o m p u r b d a a s s c a s s u n p a r u r w h e n c o m b e d w w a r r a n t o f m s s o u g h t h o u s e S v. O n e P n e e r C D - R O M C h a n g e P d 6 0 0, C A p p ) e u r e o f c o m p u r s y s m p e r m s u n d e r w a r r a n t a u o g s e u r e o f q u m e n t... p e r g e d u n o r d p y o f p o r n o g r a p h m a l n o f s o b s c e n w ; S c h a S, S d 6 3 3, e x. C ) e o f d e s e c r e p r o s e c u n, a g n e p e s a t c o n e d o r w e r e r e a s o n a b b e v e d c o n s n d a a n d / o r s s u n d e s c r e d m s b e s e e d 1 6 S e e U n d S s v. M e e k, F d 7 0 5, C ) a r r a n t s u n t s e a r c h r c r e v o g u s e o f r n e t w h e n d n u m e r o u s m s g s e d u c n a n d s e x u a l e x p n o f c h r e n : s e x u a e x p m a r l o r p a r a p h e r n a u s e d w e r h n o f c h r e n, s e x p h o g r a p h y e q u m e n c h p o r n o g r a p h a s w e a s m a r l d p a s t m o s n s u c h a s p h o g r a p h s, a d d r e s s d g e r s c d g n a m e s o f o e r p e d o p h s, u r n a o f s e x u a l e n c o u n r s w c h r e n, c o m p u r e q u m e n - r m a n o n d l a n d m a g n e s r a g e d e v e s, c o m p u r p r u, c o m p u r s o a r e a n d m a n u a, a n d d o c u m e n n r e g a r d g c o m p u r u s e U n d S s H a F d 6 3 0, C ) p h o g v a o f s e a r c h o f c o m p u r e q u m e n t a n d s b e c a u s e w a r r a n t d s e a r c h e v i d e n c e o f e s v o g (w th th iz iv ta is fo At ts is te title ta in ith in th ir tory la le IS title ta in in th ir tory title IM F@ ific lly ib to ); ta te lls (F la (w in in ith fo te ta in th im in io la tio ffic ie it th iz iz A[ ]a ta to te in lu in lim ite to tic ia th le tro ic fo is tte is tte to tic ic file ic ta s@ it le ft th in to is tio ffic tin t). ite ta te.3 (8 th ir. (w th th riz iz le tro ic to ia ta in in im in in ts llo in tio te ts io te la te ia ); ite ta te.3 (9 th ir. (w th izin te to Ao ta in ta it re la te to th is e@ ffic ie tly tic la in ith t's lis ite in ); ta te io r,.2 (O kla t. (s iz te te is ib le th rizin iz Ae ip ta in in to th is trib tio is la ic teria in vio la tio ta te ity la s@) lk v. ta te.w.2 (T rim (in th ft tra ts tio Am tic th ta in ly lie to ta in to le ta file ffic ie tly ib ite to iz ). ite ta te.3 (9 th ir. (w ffic ie to fo im in lv in In te it lis te ite rela tin to tio lo ita tio ild lly lic it te ia lia to lo in ib itio ild to ys, to ip t, ild y, ll te ia rela te to le ta tio to le in lu in th ile jo ls te ith ild te ip t, in fo tio ig ita tic to ic te in to ts te ftw ls ta tio in te ); ite ta te v. y,.3 (9 th ir. (u ld in lid ity te ip file lim ite to crim in lvin 46

48 FILE:C:\WP51\75-1\CLANCY Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:57PM 2005] COMPUTER SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 203 s e x u a l e x p lo ita tio n o f c h ild r e n ); U n ite d S ta te s v. G le ic h, F. S u p p. 2 d , (D.N.D ) (w a r r a n t a u th o r izin g s e a r c h o f c o m p u te r fo r p h o to g r a p h s, p ic tu r e s, vis u a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s, or vid e o s th a t in c lu d e d s e x u a l c o n d u c t b y m in o r, a s d e fin e d b y N o r th D a k o ta s ta tu te, m e t p a r tic u la r ity re q u ir e m e n t), a ff'd, F.3 d (8 th C ir ); U n ite d S ta te s v. H a ll, F.3 d 9 8 8, (7 th C ir ) (w h e n ite m s lis te d in w a r r a n t q u a lifie d b y p h r a s e s th a t ite m s s o u g h t w e r e r e la te d to c h ild p o r n o g r a p h y, p a r tic u la r ity req u ir e m e n t s a tis fie d ); U n ite d S ta te s v. C lo u g h, F. S u p p. 2 d 8 4, (D. M e ) (w a r r a n t in c h ild p o r n o g r a p h y c a s e a u - th o r izin g s e a r c h o f At e x t d o c u m e n ts@ a n d Ad ig ita l im a g e s@ vio la te d p a r tic u la r ity req u ir e m e n t w h e n th e r e w e r e An o r e s tric tio n s o n th e s e a r c h, n o r e fe r e n c e s to s ta t - u te s, a n d n o r e f e r e n c e s to c r im e s o r ille g a lity@) ; S ta te v. W ib le, 5 1 P.3 d 8 3 0, (W a s h A p p ) (w a r r a n t p a r tic u la r w h e n it lim ite d s e a r c h to im a g e s o f c h ild r e n e n g a g e d in s e x u a lly e x p lic it a c tivity a s d e fin e d b y c h ild p o r n o g r a p h y statu te ); c f. U n ite d S ta te s v. M a x w e ll, 4 5 M.J , (C.A.A.F ) (reje c tin g c h a lle n g e to w a r r a n t th a t in c lu d e d p e r s o n s w h o c o u ld h a v e u n k n o w in g ly r e c e iv e d c h ild p o r n o g - r a p h y in th e ir e m a il m a ilb o x e s b e c a u s e to n a r r o w th e fie ld to o n ly th o s e w h o h a d k n o w in g ly re c e iv e d im a g e s w o u ld h a v e r e q u ir e d a d v a n c e s e a r c h o f m a ilb o x e s to a s c e r ta in if file s h a d b e e n o p e n e d ). 1 7 S e e U n ite d S ta te s v. G le ic h, F.3 d 6 0 8, (8 th C ir ) (w a r r a n t a u th o r izin g s e a r c h o f h o m e a n d p e r s o n a l c o m p u te r fo r Ap h o to g r a p h s, p ic - tu r e s, vis u a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o r v id e o s in a n y fo r m th a t in c lu d e s e x u a l c o n d u c t b y a m in o r@ p e r m itte d s e a r c h o f a ll th r e e c o m p u te r s in h o u s e ); T h o r n, F.3 d a t (w a r r a n t th a t a u th o r iz e d s e a r c h a n d s e iz u r e o f e le c tro n ic s to r a g e m e d ia c o n ta in in g im a g e s o f m in o r s e n g a g e d in s e x u a l a c ts s u f fic e d to p r o v id e a u th o r ity to e x a m in e c o n te n ts o f vario u s c o m p u te r - r e la te d m e d ia ); U n ite d S ta te s v. C a m p o s, F.3 d , (1 0 th C ir ) (w a r r a n t p a r tic u la r w h e n it a u th o r iz e d, in te r a lia, s e iz u r e o f c o m p u te r e q u ip m e n t th a t m a y b e u s e d to d e p ic t o r d is trib u te c h ild p o r n o g r a p h y); U n ite d S ta te s v. U p h a m, F.3 d 5 3 2, (1 s t C ir ), c e r t. d e n ie d, U.S ( ) (u p h o ld in g w a r r a n t is s u e d fo r A[ a ]n y a n d a ll c o m p u te r s o ftw a r e a n d h a r d w a r e,... c o m p u te r d is k s, d is k d r iv e s@ in h o u s e o f w o m a n s u s - p e c te d o f s e n d in g a n d r e c e ivin g c h ild p o r n o g r a p h y o v e r In te r n e t); D a v is v. G r a c e y, F.3 d , (1 0 th C ir ) (Ae q u ip m e n t... p e r ta in in g to th e d is trib u tio n o r d is p la y o f p o r n o g r a p h ic m a te r ia l@ w a s s u ffic ie n tly p r e c is e to lim it s e a r c h to c o m p u te r e q u ip m e n t c o n n e c te d w ith th a t crim in a l a c tivity); U n ite d S ta te s v. A lb e r t, F. S u p p. 2 d 2 6 7, (D. M a s s ) (w a r r a n t p a r tic u la r w h e n it a u th o r iz e d s e a r c h a n d s e iz u r e o f c o m p u te r, d is k s, s o ftw a r e, a n d s to r a g e d e v ic e s w h e n th e r e w a s p r o b a b le c a u s e to b e lie v e th a t th e c o m p u te r c o n ta in e d m o r e th a n im a g e s o f c h ild p o r n o g r a p h y, g iv e n th a t th e As e a r c h a n d s e iz u r e o f th e c o m p u te r a n d its r e la te d s to r a g e e q u ip m e n t w a s th e o n ly p r a c tic a l w a y to o b ta in th e 47

49 F IL E :C : \ W P 5 1 \ \ C L A N C Y D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :5 7 P M M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l Rejection of the Document Search and Container Analogy: A ASpecial Approach@ Some authorities reject the container analogy and view searches for data on a computer much differently than paper document searches. 18 The leading case, United States v. Carey, 19 espouses the view that law enforcement officers must take a Aspecial approach@ 20 to the search of data contained on computers and that the Afile cabinet analogy may be inadequate.@ 21 This position is premised on the fact that Aelectronic storage is likely to contain a greater quantity and variety of information than any previous storage method.@ 22 As one judge has argued: im a g e s@) ; U n ite d S ta te s v. A lle n, 5 3 M.J , (C.A.A.F ) (w a r r a n t p a r tic u la r w h e n it a u th o r iz e d s e a r c h fo r c o m p u te r file s r e la tin g to n u d e p h o to g r a p h s o f ju v e n ile s, In te r n e t lo c a tio n s o f s u c h m a te ria l, o r lis ts o f s u c h file s ); S ta te v. W ib le, 5 1 P.3 d 8 3 0, (W a s h. A p p ) (w a r r a n t fo r c h ild p o r n o g r a p h y s a tis fie s p a r tic u la r ity re q u ir e m e n t if it lim its s e iz a b le ite m s b y s p e c ifyin g typ e o f m a te r ia l th a t q u a lifie s a s c h ild p o r n o g r a p h y); S ta te v. M a x w e ll, A.2 d , (N.J. S u p e r ) (in c a s e in v o lvin g u s e o f te le p h o n e to c a ll c h ild v ic tim s o f s e x u a l a s s a u lt, w a r r a n t th a t a u th o r iz e d s e a r c h o f c o m p u te r fo r Ac o m p u t e r a d d r e s s b o o k s@ v a lid ); S ta te v. P a ts c h e c k, 6 P.3 d 4 9 8, (N.M. A p p ) (in p r o s e c u tio n fo r s e x u a l o ffe n s e s a g a in s t c h ild r e n, w a r r a n t th a t s p e c ifie d c o m p u t e r to b e s e a r c h e d fo r Ap o r n o g r a p h ic m o v ie s@ v a lid ); S ta te v. L e h m a n, A.2 d 2 5 6, (M e ) (w a r r a n t n o t o v e r b r o a d w h e n it a u th o riz e d s e iz u r e o f a ll c o m p u te r - r e la te d e q u ip m e n t in s u s p e c t's h o u s e w h e n p o lic e k n e w o n ly th a t th e im a g e s o f s e x u a lly e x p lo ite d g irls w e r e ta k e n b y a d ig ita l c a m e r a a n d d o w n lo a d e d to a c o m p u t e r ); c f. U n ite d S ta te s v. L a m b, F. S u p p , (N.D.N.Y ) (w a r r a n t s a tis - fie d p a r tic u la r ity re q u ir e m e n t in c h ild p o r n o g r a p h y c a s e s e e k in g s u b s c r ib e r in fo r m a tio n a n d e le c tro n ic m a il m e s s a g e s s e n t to a n d r e c e iv e d b y 7 8 in d ivid u a ls fr o m In te r n e t s e r v ic e p r o v id e r w h e n m e s s a g e s w e r e in s trum e n ta litie s o f crim e u s e d b y c h ild p o r n o g r a p h y tra f fic k e r s to lo c a te a n d c o m m u n ic a te w ith p e r s o n s o f lik e m in d ). 1 8 S e e R a p h a e l W in ic k, S e a r c h e s a n d S e iz u r e s o f C o m p u te r s a n d C o m p u te r D a ta, 8 H. J.L. & T E C H. 7 5, ( ) ( A n a n a lo g y b e tw e e n a c o m p u te r a n d a c o n ta in e r o v e r s im p lifie s a c o m p le x a r e a o f F o u r th A m e n d m e n t d o c trin e a n d ig n o r e s th e rea litie s o f m a s s iv e m o d e r n c o m p u te r s to r a g e.@) ; s e e a ls o S u s a n W. B r e n n e r & B a r b a r a A. F r e d e r ik s e n, C o m p u te r S e a r c h e s a n d S e iz u r e s : 48

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