Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics

Transcription

1 Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics

2 What is a Fluid?

3 I. What is a fluid? I.1 The Fluid approximation: The fluid is an idealized concept in which the matter is described as a continuous medium with certain macroscopic properties that vary as continuous function of position (e.g., density, pressure, velocity, entropy). That is, one assumes that the scales l over which these quantities are defined is much larger than the mean free path l of the individual particles that constitute the fluid, 1 l ; n Where n is the number density of particles in the fluid and is a typical interaction cross section. 4

4 I. What is a fluid? Furthermore, the concept of local fluid quantities is only useful if the scale l on which they are defined is much smaller than the typical macroscopic lengthscales L on which fluid properties vary. Thus to use the equations of fluid dynamics we require Ll Astrophysical circumstances are often such that strictly speaing not all criteria are fulfilled. 4

5 I. What is a fluid? Astrophysical circumstances are often such that strictly speaing not all fluid criteria are fulfilled. Mean free path astrophysical fluids (temperature T, density n): 10 6 T 2 / n cm 1) Sun (centre): T 10 K, n10 cm 10 cm 10 R 710 cm fluid approximation very good 2) Solar wind: 3) Cluster: T 10 K, n10 cm 10 cm 13 AU cm fluid approximation does not apply, plasma physics 7 T 310 K, 3 3 n10 cm cm 4 1 Mpc fluid approximation marginal

6 Solid vs. Fluid By definition, a fluid cannot withstand any tendency for applied forces to deform it, (while volume remains unchanged). Such deformation may be resisted, but not prevented. A B A B A B Solid C D C D C D Before application of shear A B Shear force A B After shear force is removed A B Fluid C D C D C D 5

7 Mathematical Preliminaries

8 Mathematical preliminaries S F ds F dv V Gauss's Law C F dl F ds Stoe's Theorem S 6

9 Lagrangian vs. Eulerian View There is a range of different ways in which we can follow the evolution of a fluid. The two most useful and best nown ones are: 1) Eulerian view Consider the system properties Q density, flow velocity, temperature, pressure at fixed locations. The temporal changes of these quantities is therefore followed by partial time derivative: 2) Lagrangian view Q t Follow the changing system properties Q as you flow along with a fluid element. In a way, this particle approach is in the spirit of Newtonian dynamics, where you follow the body under the action of external force(s). The temporal change of the quantities is followed by means of the convective or Lagrangian derivative DQ Dt

10 Lagrangian vs. Eulerian View Consider the change of a fluid quantity at a location 1) Eulerian view: change in quantity Q in interval dt, at location r : Qrt (, ) 2) Lagrangian view: change in quantity Q in time interval dt, while fluid element moves from r to r r r Q Q( r, tt) Q( r, t) t t DQ Qr ( rt, t) Qrt (, ) Dt t Q v Q t D Dt v t Convective/ Lagrangian Derivative

11 Basic Fluid Equations

12 Conservation Equations To describe a continuous fluid flow field, the first step is to evaluate the development of essential properties of the mean flow field. To this end we evaluate the first 3 moment of the phase space distribution function, corresponding to five quantities, f ( rv, ) For a gas or fluid consisting of particles with mass m, these are 1) mass density 2) momentum density 3) (inetic) energy density m u mv f rvtdv,, 2 mvu /2 u v w Note that we use to denote the bul velocity at location r, and for the particle velocity. The velocity of a particle is therefore the sum of the bul velocity and a random component, v u w In principle, to follow the evolution of the (moment) quantities, we have to follow the evolution of the phase space density f ( rv, ). The Boltzmann equation describes this evolution.

13 Boltzmann Equation In principle, to follow the evolution of these (moment) quantities, we have to follow the evolution of the phase space density f ( rv, ). This means we should solve the Boltzmann equation, f f t vf v f t c The righthand collisional term is given by in which f vv f v f v f v f v ddv t c v, v2 v, v is the angle W-dependent elastic collision cross section. On the lefthand side, we find the gravitational potential term, which according to the Poisson equation 2 4 G( ) is generated by selfgravity as well as the external mass distribution. ext ext x, t

14 Boltzmann Equation To follow the evolution of a fluid at a particular location x, we follow the evolution of a quantity c(x,v) as described by the Boltzmann equation. To this end, we integrate over the full velocity range, f f f f v dv dv t x x v t c ( xv, ) If the quantity is a conserved quantity in a collision, then the righthand side of the equation equals zero. For elastic collisions, these are mass, momentum and (inetic) energy of a particle. Thus, for these quantities we have, f t dv 0 The above result expresses mathematically the simple notion that collisions can not contribute to the time rate change of any quantity whose total is conserved in the collisional process. For elastic collisions involving short-range forces in the nonrelativistic regime, there exist exactly five independent quantities which are conserved: mass, momentum (inetic) energy of a particle, m m; mvi ; v 2 c 2

15 Boltzmann Moment Equations When we define an average local quantity, for a quantity Q, then on the basis of the velocity integral of the Boltzmann equation, we get the following evolution equations for the conserved quantities c, For the five quantities 1 Q n Q f dv t x x v n n v n 0 m m; mvi ; v 2 the resulting conservation equations are nown as the 1) mass density continuity equation 2) momentum density Euler equation 3) energy density energy equation In the sequel we follow for reasons of insight a slightly more heuristic path towards inferring the continuity equation and the Euler equation. 2

16 Continuity equation n To infer the continuity equation, we consider the conservation of mass contained in a volume V which is fixed in space and enclosed by a surface S. S n The mass M is M V dv V The change of mass M in the volume V is equal to the flux of mass through the surface S, d dt n V dv Where is the outward pointing normal vector. S u n ds LHS: d dt S V dv V V uds dv t RHS, using the divergence theorem (Green s formula): u dv

17 Continuity equation Since this holds for every volume, this relation is equivalent to t u 0 ( I.1) The continuity equation expresses - mass conservation AND - fluid flow occurring in a continuous fashion!!!!! S n n V One can also define the mass flux density as j u which shows that eqn. I.1 is actually a continuity equation j t 0 ( I.2)

18 Continuity Equation & Compressibility From the continuity equation, t u 0 n we find directly that, u u t Of course, the first two terms define the Lagrangian derivative, so that for a moving fluid element we find that its density changes according to 1 D u Dt In other words, the density of the fluid element changes as the divergence of the velocity flow. If the density of the fluid cannot change, we call it an incompressible fluid, for which. 0 u 0

19 Momentum Conservation mv i t x x v When considering the fluid momentum,, via the Boltzmann moment equation, n n v n 0 we obtain the equation of momentum conservation, t x x v vv 0 i i i Decomposing the velocity v i into the bul velocity u i and the random component w i, we have vv uu ww i i i By separating out the trace of the symmetric dyadic w i w, we write ww p i i i

20 Momentum Conservation By separating out the trace of the symmetric dyadic w i w, we write where ww p i i i P is the gas pressure p i is the viscous stress tensor 1 2 p w i w i ww i we obtain the momentum equation, in its conservation form, u uu p t x x i i i i i

21 Momentum Conservation Momentum Equation u uu p t x x i i i i i Describes the change of the momentum density in the i-direction: The flux of the i-th component of momentum in the -th direction consists of the sum of u i 1) a mean part: 2) random part I, isotropic pressure part: 3) random part II, nonisotropic viscous part: uu i p i i

22 Force Equation Momentum Equation u uu p t x x i i i i i By invoing the continuity equation, we may also manipulate the momentum equation so that it becomes the force equation Du Dt p

23 Viscous Stress A note on the viscous stress term : For Newtonian fluids: Hooe s Law states that the viscous stress is linearly proportional to the rate of strain, i i where is the shear deformation tensor, The parameters m and b are called the shear and bul coefficients of viscosity. i 2 u i i i 1ui u 1 i u 2x xi 3 i u i / x

24 Euler equation In the absence of viscous terms, we may easily derive the equation for the conservation of momentum on the basis of macroscopic considerations. This yields the Euler equation. As in the case for mass conservation, consider an arbitrary volume V, fixed in space, and bounded by a surface S, with an outward normal. Inside V, the total momentum for a fluid with density and flow velocity is The momentum inside V changes as a result of three factors: V 1) External (volume) force, a well nown example is the gravitational force when V embedded in gravity field. 2) The pressure (surface) force over de surface S of the volume. (at this stage we'll ignore other stress tensor terms that can either be caused by viscosity, electromagnetic stress tensor, etc.): 3) The net transport of momentum by in- and outflow of fluid into and out of V n u dv u

25 Euler equation 1) External (volume) forces,: f where is the force per unit mass, nown as the body force. An example is the gravitational force when the volume V is embeddded in a gravitational field. 2) The pressure (surface) force is the integral of the pressure (force per unit area) over the surface S, V 3) The momentum transport over the surface area can be inferred by considering at each surface point the slanted cylinder of fluid swept out by the area element ds in time dt, where ds starts on the surface S and moves with the fluid, ie. with velocity u. The momentum transported through the slanted cylinder is so that the total transported momentum through the surface S is: S f dv pn ds u u u n t S u u u n ds S

26 Euler equation Taing into account all three factors, the total rate of change of momentum is given by d dt u dv f dv pnds u u n ds V V S S The most convenient way to evaluate this integral is by restricting oneself to the i-component of the velocity field, d dt u dv f dv pn ds u u n ds V i V i S i S i j j Note that we use the Einstein summation convention for repeated indices. Volume V is fixed, so that d dt V V t Furthermore, V is arbitrary. Hence, p u u u f t x x i i j i j i

27 Euler equation Reordering some terms of the lefthand side of the last equation, p u u u f t x x leads to the following equation: i i j i j i u u p u u u f j j i i j i j i t x t x xi From the continuity equation, we now that the second term on the LHS is zero. Subsequently, returning to vector notation, we find the usual exprssion for the Euler equation, Returning to vector notation, and using the we find the usual expression for the Euler equation: u t ( u ) u p f ( I.4)

28 Euler equation An slightly alternative expression for the Euler equation is u t p u u f ( I.5) In this discussion we ignored energy dissipation processes which may occur as a result of internal friction within the medium and heat exchange between its parts (conduction). This type of fluids are called ideal fluids. Gravity: For gravity the force per unit mass is given by where the Poisson equation relates the gravitational potential j to the density r: 2 f 4 G

29 Euler equation From eqn. (I.4) u t ( u ) u p f ( I.4) we see that the LHS involves the Lagrangian derivative, so that the Euler equation can be written as Du Dt p f ( I.6) In this form it can be recognized as a statement of Newton s 2 nd law for an inviscid (frictionless) fluid. It says that, for an infinitesimal volume of fluid, mass times acceleration = total force on the same volume, namely force due to pressure gradient plus whatever body forces are being exerted.

30 Energy Conservation u w 2 2 In terms of bul velocity and random velocity the (inetic) energy of a particle is, m m mu mw v ( uw) mwu The Boltzmann moment equation for energy conservation becomes t x x v n n v n u w u 2 w ui wi u t 2 x 2 x Expanding the term inside the spatial divergence, we get u w u w u u 2u ww u w w w i i i i 0

31 Energy Conservation Defining the following energy-related quantities: 1) specific internal energy: w 2 2 P 2) gas pressure 3) conduction heat flux 4) viscous stress tensor P 1 3 w 1 F w w i w i ww i 2

32 Energy Conservation The total energy equation for energy conservation in its conservation form is 2 2 u u u ui P i i u F u t 2 x 2 x This equation states that the total fluid energy density is the sum of a part due to bul motion u and a part due to random motions w. The flux of fluid energy in the -th direction consists of 1) the translation of the bul inetic energy at the -th component of the mean velocity, 2) plus the enthalpy sum of internal energy and pressure flux, Pu 3) plus the viscous contribution u u i 2 i /2 u 4) plus the conductive flux F

33 Wor Equation Internal Energy Equation For several purposes it is convenient to express energy conservation in a form that involves only the internal energy and a form that only involves the global PdV wor. The wor equation follows from the full energy equation by using the Euler equation, by multiplying it by and using the continuity equation: u i 2 2 P i u u u ui ui ui t 2 x 2 xi xi x Subtracting the wor equation from the full energy equation, yields the internal energy equation for the internal energy u F u P t x x x where Y is the rate of viscous dissipation evoed by the viscosity stress i u i x i

34 Internal energy equation If we use the continuity equation, we may also write the internal energy equation in the form of the first law of thermodynamics, D PuFcond Dt in which we recognize 1 D P u P Dt as the rate of doing PdV wor, and F cond as the time rate of adding heat (through heat conduction and the viscous conversion of ordered energy in differential fluid motions to disordered energy in random particle motions).

35 Energy Equation On the basis of the inetic equation for energy conservation t 2 2 u u u uip i iu F ug 2 x 2 we may understand that the time rate of the change of the total fluid energy in a volume V (with surface area A), i.e. the inetic energy of fluid motion plus internal energy, should equal the sum of 1) minus the surface integral of the energy flux (inetic + internal) 2) plus surface integral of doing wor by the internal stresses P i 3) volume integral of the rate of doing wor by local body forces (e.g. gravitational) 4) minus the heat loss by conduction across the surface A 5) plus volumetric gain minus volumetric losses of energy due to local sources and sins (e.g. radiation)

36 Energy Equation The total expression for the time rate of total fluid energy is therefore d dt V u dv u u nda ˆ 2 A 2 upnda A i i ugdv V F nˆ da dv A cond V æ P i is the force per unit area exerted by the outside on the inside in the i th direction across a face whose normal is oriented in the th direction. For a dilute gas this is P ww p i i i i æ G is the energy gain per volume, as a result of energy generating processes. æ L is the energy loss per volume due to local sins (such as e.g. radiation)

37 Energy Equation By applying the divergence theorem, we obtain the total energy equation: t i i 2 x 2 u u u P F gu

38 Heat Equation Implicit to the fluid formulation, is the concept of local thermal equilibrium. This allows us to identify the trace of the stress tensor P i with the thermodynamic pressure p, P p i i i Such that it is related to the internal energy per unit mass of the fluid,, and the specific entropy s, by the fundamental law of thermodynamics d Tds pdv Tds pd Applying this thermodynamic equation and subtracting the wor equation, we obtain the Heat Equation, Ds T Fcond Dt 1 where Y equals the rate of viscous dissipation, u i x i

39 Fluid Flow Visualization

40 Flow Visualization: Streamlines, Pathlines & Strealines Fluid flow is characterized by a velocity vector field in 3-D space. There are various distinct types of curves/lines commonly used when visualizing fluid motion: streamlines, pathlines and strealines. These only differ when the flow changes in time, ie. when the flow is not steady! If the flow is not steady, streamlines and strealines will change. 1) Streamlines re a Family of curves that are instantaneously tangent to the velocity u vector. They show the direction a fluid element will travel at any point in time. If we parameterize one particular streamline, with, then streamlines are defined as l S ( s) dls u ( l S ) 0 ds l ( s 0 ) x S 0

41 Flow Visualization: Streamlines Definition Streamlines: dls u ( l S ) 0 ds If the components of the streamline can be written as l ( x, y, z ) S Illustrations of streamlines and then dl ( dx, dy, dz) u ( ux, uy, uz) re a dx dy dz u u u x y z

42 2) Pathlines Flow Visualization: Pathlines Pathlines are the trajectories that individual fluid particles follow. These can be thought of as a "recording" of the path a fluid element in the flow taes over a certain period. The direction the path taes will be determined by the streamlines of the fluid at each moment in time. l () P t dlp ul ( P, t) dt lp( t0) xp0 Pathlines are defined by re a where the suffix P indicates we are following the path of particle P. Note that at location the curve is parallel to velocity vector, where the velocity vector is evaluated at l P location at time t. l P u

43 3) Strealines Flow Visualization: Strealines Strealines are are the locus of points of all the fluid particles that have passed continuously through a particular spatial point in the past. Dye steadily injected into the fluid at a fixed point extends along a strealine. In other words, it is lie the plume from a chimney. Strealines ul (, t) l T dlt ul ( T, t) dt lt( T) xt0 can be expressed as re a where is the velocity at location at time t. The parameter T l t, parameterizes the strealine and with t 0 time of interest. T T l T 0 T t 0 T

44 Flow Visualization: Streamlines, Pathlines, Strealines The following example illustrates the different concepts of streamlines, pathlines and strealines: æ red: pathline æ blue: strealine æ short-dashed: evolving streamlines re a

45 Steady flow Steady flow is a flow in which the velocity, density and the other fields do not depend explicitly on time, namely / t 0 In steady flow streamlines and strealines do not vary with time and coincide with the pathlines.

46 Kinematics of Fluid Flow

47 Stoes Flow Theorem Stoes flow theorem: The most general differential motion of a fluid element corresponds to a 1) uniform translation 2) uniform expansion/contraction divergence term 3) uniform rotation vorticity term 4) distortion (without change volume) shear term The fluid velocity u ( Q ) at a point Q displaced by a small amount R from a point P will differ by a small amount, and includes the components listed above: uq ( ) up ( ) HRSR Divergence uniform expansion/contraction Vorticity uniform rotation uniform translation Shear term distortion

48 Stoes Flow Theorem Stoes flow theorem: the terms of the relative motion wrt. point P are: 2) Divergence term: uniform expansion/contraction H 1 3 u 3) Shear term: uniform distortion S i : shear deformation scalar : shear tensor 4) Vorticity Term: uniform rotation 1 S i RR i 2 1ui u 1 i u 2x xi u 2 2 u i

49 Stoes Flow Theorem Stoes flow theorem: One may easily understand the components of the fluid flow around a point P by a simple Taylor expansion of the velocity field u ( x ) around the point P: u i u u ( x R, t) u ( x, t) R x i i i Subsequently, it is insightful to write the rate-of-strain tensor u in i / x terms of its symmetric and antisymmetric parts: u 1 i u i u 1 u i u x 2 x x i 2 x x i The symmetric part of this tensor is the deformation tensor, and it is convenient -and insightful to write it in terms of a diagonal trace part and the traceless shear tensor, i u x i 1 u 3 i i i

50 Stoes Flow Theorem where 1) the symmetric (and traceless) shear tensor is defined as 1 u i u 1 i u 2 x x i 3 i i i 2) the antisymmetric tensor as i 1 2 u x i u x i 3) the trace of the rate-of-strain tensor is proportional to the velocity divergence term, u u u x x x u i i

51 Stoes Flow Theorem Divergence Term u u u x x x u i i We now from the Lagrangian continuity equation, 1 D Dt u that the term represents the uniform expansion or contraction of the fluid element.

52 Stoes Flow Theorem Shear Term The traceless symmetric shear term, 1 u i u 1 i 2 x x i 3 u i represents the anisotropic deformation of the fluid element. As it concerns a traceless deformation, it preserves the volume of the fluid element (the volume-changing deformation is represented via the divergence term). (intention of illustration is that the volume of the sphere and the ellipsoid to be equal)

53 Stoes Flow Theorem Shear Term Note that we can associate a quadratic form ie. an ellipsoid with the shear tensor, the shear deformation scalar S, such that the corresponding shear velocity contribution is given by S u 1 2 i i S We may also define a related quadratic form by incorporating the divergence term, Evidently, this represents the irrotational part of the velocity field. For this reason, we call the velocity potential: v RR R,i i Ri D R R u R R v 1 ui u R Ri 2 x xi v m m m m m u u v 0

54 Stoes Flow Theorem Vorticity Term The antisymmetric term, i represents the rotational component of the fluid element s motion, the vorticity. With the antisymmetric i 1 2 u x we can associate a (pseudo)vector, the vorticity vector where the coordinates of the vorticity vector, 1 2 3, are related to the vorticity tensor via where is the Levi-Cevita tensor, which fulfils the useful identity i u x u u i u 2 x x x m m i i im m i i im i u (,, ) im m ps p is s ip

55 Stoes Flow Theorem Vorticity Term The contribution of the antisymmetric part of the differential velocity therefore reads, u 1 u u R 1 R R i, i im m im m 2 x x i 2 The last expression in the eqn. above equals the i-th component of the rotational velocity v rot R 1 u 2 of the fluid element wrt to its center of mass, so that the vorticity vector can be identified with one-half the angular velocity of the fluid element,

56 Linear Momentum Fluid Element The linear momentum p of a fluid element equal the fluid velocity u ( Q ) integrated over the mass of the element, Substituting this into the equation for the fluid flow around P, we obtain: p u ( Q ) dm uq ( ) up ( ) HRSR p u( P) dm R dm H R dm S dm If P is the center of mass of the fluid element, then the 2 nd and 3 rd terms on the RHS vanish as Rdm 0 Moreover, for the 4 th term we can also use this fact to arrive at, Sdm R dm R dm0 i i i

57 Linear Momentum Fluid Element Hence, for a fluid element, the linear momentum equals the mass times the center-of-mass velocity, p u ( Q ) dm m u ( P )

58 Angular Momentum Fluid Element With respect to the center-of-mass P, the instantaneous angular momentum of a fluid element equals We rotate the coordinate axes to the eigenvector coordinate system of the deformation tensor D m (or, equivalently, the shear tensor m), in which the symmetric deformation tensor is diagonal and all strains are extensional, Then J R u ( Q ) dm 1 1 v D mr m R D R D R D R 2 2 D m u u u D ; D ; D x 1 x 2 x 3 J R u ( Q ) R u ( Q ) dm

59 Angular Momentum Fluid Element In the eigenvalue coordinate system, the angular momentum in the 1-direction is where J R u ( Q ) R u ( Q ) dm u /2 with and D m evaluated at the center-of-mass P. After some algebra we obtain where is the moment of inertia tensor u ( Q ) u ( P ) R R D R u ( Q ) u ( P ) R R D R J I I I I D D I j l I R R R dm jl jl j l I Notice that j l is not diagonal in the primed frame unless the principal axes of happen to coincide with those of. D m I j l

60 Angular Momentum Fluid Element Using the simple observation that the difference D D I since the isotropic part of j l does not enter in the difference, we find for all 3 angular momentum components J I I 1 1l l J I I 2 2l l J I I 3 3l l with a summation over the repeated l s. Note that for a solid body we would have J I j jl l For a fluid an extra contribution arises from the extensional strain if the principal axes of the moment-of-inertia tensor do not coincide with those of. D i Notice, in particular, that a fluid element can have angular momentum wrt. its center of mass without possesing spinning motion, ie. even if! u /2 0

61 Inviscid Barotropic Flow

62 Inviscid Barotropic Flow In this chapter we are going to study the flow of fluids in which we ignore the effects of viscosity. In addition, we suppose that the energetics of the flow processes are such that we have a barotropic equation of state P P (, S ) P ( ) Such a replacement considerably simplifies many dynamical discussions, and its formal justification can arise in many ways. One specific example is when heat transport can be ignored, so that we have adiabatic flow, Ds Dt s t v s 0 with s the specific entropy per mass unit. Such a flow is called an isentropic flow. However, barotropic flow is more general than isentropic flow. There are also various other thermodynamic circumstances where the barotropic hypothesis is valid.

63 Inviscid Barotropic Flow For a barotropic flow, the specific enthalpy h dh T ds Vdp becomes simply dh Vdp dp and h dp

64 Kelvin Circulation Theorem Assume a fluid embedded in a uniform gravitational field, i.e. with an external force so that ignoring the influence of viscous stresses and radiative forces - the flow proceeds according to the Euler equation, u t u u g To proceed, we use a relevant vector identity f which you can most easily chec by woring out the expressions for each of the 3 components. The resulting expression for the Euler equation is then g p 1 2 u u u u u 2 u 1 2 u u u g t 2 p

65 Kelvin Circulation Theorem If we tae the curl of equation we obtain u 1 2 p u u u g t 2 u g p 2 t u where is the vorticity vector, and we have used the fact that the curl of the gradient of any function equals zero, 1 2 0; 0 2 u p Also, a classical gravitational field g satisfies this property, so that gravitational fields cannot contribute to the generation or destruction of vorticity. g 0

66 Vorticity Equation In the case of barotropic flow, ie. if p p p ( ) p so that also the 2 nd term on the RHS of the vorticity equation disappears, 1 1 p p The resulting expression for the vorticity equation for barotropic flow in a conservative gravitational field is therefore, t which we now as the Vorticity Equation. u 0

67 Kelvin Circulation Theorem Interpretation of the vorticity equation: t u 0 Compare to magnetostatics, where we may associate the value of with a certain number of magnetic field lines per unit area. B With such a picture, we may give the following geometric interpretation of the vorticity equation, which will be the physical essence of the Kelvin Circulation Theorem The number of vortex lines that thread any element of area, that moves with the fluid, remains unchanged in time for inviscid barotropic flow.

68 Kelvin Circulation Theorem To prove Kelvin s circulation theorem, we define the circulation G around a circuit C by the line integral, C u dl Transforming the line integral to a surface integral over the enclosed area A by Stoes theorem, we obtain u n da A A n da This equation states that the circulation G of the circuit C can be calculated as the number of vortex lines that thread the enclosed area A.

69 Kelvin Circulation Theorem Time rate of change of G Subsequently, we investigate the time rate of change of G if every point on C moves at the local fluid velocity. u Tae the time derivative of the surface integral in the last equation. It has 2 contributions: d dt n da time rate of change of area A t ˆn where is the unit normal vector to the surface area.

70 Kelvin Circulation Theorem d dt Time rate of change of G n da time rate of change of area A t The time rate of change of area can be expressed mathematically with the help of the figure illustrating the change of an area A moving locally with fluid velocity. On the basis of this, we may write, d dt nda ˆ u dl A t C We then interchange the cross and dot in the triple scalar product u dl u dl

71 Kelvin Circulation Theorem Time rate of change of G Using Stoes theorem to convert the resulting line integral d dt to a surface integral, we obtain: d dt nda ˆ u dl A t C A t u ˆ n da The vorticity equation tells us that the integrand on the right-hand side equals zero, so that we have the geometric interpretation of Kelvin s circulation theorem, d dt 0

72 Kelvin Circulation Theorem Time rate of change of G Using Stoes theorem to convert the resulting line integral d dt to a surface integral, we obtain: d dt nda ˆ u dl A t C A t u ˆ n da The vorticity equation tells us that the integrand on the right-hand side equals zero, so that we have the geometric interpretation of Kelvin s circulation theorem, d dt 0

73 the Bernoulli Theorem Closely related to Kelvin s circulation theorem we find Bernoulli s theorem. It concerns a flow which is steady and barotropic, i.e. and u t p Again, using the vector identity, 1 2 u u u u u 2 we may write the Euler equation for a steady flow in a gravitational field f u t 0 p( ) u u u u 1 2 u u u 2 p p

74 the Bernoulli Theorem The Euler equation thus implies that where h is the specific enthalpy, equal to for which 1 2 u u h 2 dp h p h We thus find that the Euler equation implies that 1 2 u u h 2

75 the Bernoulli Theorem Defining the Bernoulli function B 1 2 B u h 2 which has dimensions of energy per unit mass. The Euler equation thus becomes u B Now we consider two situations, the scalar product of the equation with and and, u ( u ) B 0 1) B is constant along streamlines this is Bernoulli s streamline theorem ( ) B 0 2) B is constant along vortex lines ie. along integral curves x * vortex lines are curves tangent to the vector field 0 ( x ) ( )