SNOW AND GLACIER HYDROLOGY

Transcription

1 SNOW AND GLACIER HYDROLOGY by PRATAP SINGH National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India and VIJAY P. SINGH Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, U.S.A. KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS DORDRECHT / BOSTON / LONDON

2 Table of Contents DEDICATION PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v vii xi PART I: PRELIMINARIES 1 1. INTRODUCTION Definition of Hydrology Classification of Hydrology Hydrological Cycle Inventory of the World's Water and Global Water Balance Role of Hydrology Scope and Importance of Snow and Glaciers A Short History of Snow and Glacier Studies 38 References 45 PART II: PROPERTIES AND MEASUREMENT OF SNOW AND SNOW COVER ATMOSPHERE AND ITS COMPONENTS S3 2.1 General Atmospheric Characteristics Atmospheric Water Vapor and its Indices Vaporization or Evaporation Condensation Heat Required for Conversion Temperature Precipitation Formation and Growth of Snow Crystals Classification of Snow Crystals Chemistry of Snow Typical Winds in Mountains 94 References PROPERTIES OF SNOW AND ICE Physical Properties Thermal Properties Optical Properties 117 References " 119

3 4. MEASUREMENT OF SNOW Depth of Snowfall Water Equivalent of Snowfall Comparison of Snow Gauge Measurements Errors in Precipitation Measurements Shielding of Snow Gauges Network and Observation Frequency Telemetry of Snow Measurements Areal Estimation of Precipitation 155 References MEASUREMENT OF DEPTH, WATER EQUIVALENT, AND AREA OF SNOW COVER Evolution of Snow Cover Depth of Snow Cover Snow Cover Water Equivalent Areal Extent of Snow Cover Satellite Sensors for Snow Related Studies Microwave Response of Snow Metamorphism of Snow 189 References 212 PART III: SNOWMELT AND ITS ESTIMATION ENERGY EXCHANGE PROCESSES Energy Balance Snowmelt Indices Comparison of Energy Balance and Index Approach Observed Maximum Snowmelt Rates 262 References STREAMFLOW HYDROGRAPH Classification of Streams Components of Streamflow Delineation of Runoff Components Factors Affecting Hydrograph Characteristics Hydrograph Time Characteristics Elements of Hydrographs Recession Analysis of Snowmelt Hydrograph Determination of Recession Constants Baseflow Separation 301

4 References 307 PART IV: SNOWMELT RUNOFF MODELING AND FORECASTING SNOWMELT RUNOFF MODELING Mathematical Models Modeling of Snowmelt Runoff Storage Potential Time Delay in Runoff Generation Soil Conditions Beneath a Snow cover Routing Forecasting of Snowmelt Runoff Simulation Accuracy 404 References SNOWMELT MODELS Streamflow Synthesis and Reservoir Regulation Model-(SSARR) Snowmelt Runoff Model (SRM) University of British Columbia Watershed Model (UBC) Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System (PRMS) HBV Model 443 References 445 PART V: HYDROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF GLACIERS GLACIER CHARACTERISTICS AND MASS BALANCE Glacier Classification of Glaciers Inventory of Glaciers Spatial Characteristics of a Glacier Glacier Movement Mass Balance of a Glacier and Its Measurement Depth of a Glacier and Its Measurement 484 References GLACIAL MELTING Melting of Glaciers Effect of Dust and Debris on Melting Estimation of Glacier-Melt Runoff Degree-day Factors for Snow and Ice 521

5 11.5 Forecasting of Glacier-Melt Runoff Glacier-Melt Runoff Models Effect of Climate Change on Glacier-Melt Runoff 528 References GLACIAL STORAGE AND DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS Hydrologic Response of Glacierized Basins Seasonal Distribution of Glacier-Melt Runoff Melt Water Storage Characteristics Melt Water Drainage Characteristics Impact of Precipitation on Glacier-Melt Runoff Runoff, Movement and Drainage Generation of Extreme Flows from Glaciers Estimation of GLOF Discharge Application of Isotopes in Glacier Studies Separation of Hydrograph Components 575 References EROSION AND SEDIMENT YIELD Definitions Erosion and Sediment Yield v Sources of Sediment in Glacierized Basins Sediment Flux and Subglacial Drainage Network Sediment-Yield Process Sedimentation from Arctic and Temperate Glaciers Sampling and Analysis of Suspended Sediment Grain Size Distribution in Glacier Melt Streams Sediment Yield Modeling 611 References STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENTS Selection of Discharge Observation Sites Measurement of Stage Measurement of Velocity Measurement of Discharge Stage-Discharge Relation Shifting Control Extension of Rating Curves Hydraulic Geometry Streamflow Network _ 710 References " 712

6 APPENDIX A 714 AUTHOR INDEX 721 SUBJECT INDEX 734