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2 Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology, 10e Tarbuck & Lutgens

3 An Introduction to Geology Earth, 10e - Chapter 1 Stan Hatfield Southwestern Illinois College

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5 The Science of Geology Geology is the science that pursues an understanding of planet Earth. Physical geology examines Earth materials and seeks to understand the many processes that operate on our planet. Historical geology seeks an understanding of the origin of Earth and its development through time.

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8 The Science of Geology, Continued Geology, people, and the environment Many important relationships exist between people and the natural environment. Problems and issues addressed by geology include: Natural hazards, resources, world population growth, and environmental issues

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11 Geologic Time The magnitude of geologic time Involves vast times millions or billions of years An appreciation for the magnitude of geologic time is important because many processes are very gradual.

12 The Science of Geology Some historical notes about geology The nature of Earth has been a focus of study for centuries. Catastrophism Uniformitarianism the physical, chemical, and biologic laws that operate today have operated throughout the geologic past.

13 James Hutton ( ), a Scottish farmer and naturalist, is known as the founder of modern geology. He was a great observer of the world around him. More importantly, he made carefully reasoned geological arguments. Hutton came to believe that the Earth was perpetually being formed; for example, molten material is forced up into mountains, eroded, and then eroded sediments are washed away. He recognized that the history of the Earth could be determined by understanding how processes such as erosion and sedimentation work in the present day. His ideas and approach to studying the Earth established geology as a proper science. Another of Huttonʼs key concepts was the Theory of Uniformitarianism. This was the belief that geological forces at work in the present day barely noticeable to the human eye, yet immense in their impact are the same as those that operated in the past. 13

14 Geologic Time Geologists are now able to assign fairly accurate dates to events in Earth history. Relative dating and the geologic time scale Relative dating means that dates are placed in their proper sequence or order without knowing their specific age. Superposition in a sequence of sedimentary rocks or lava flows, the youngest layer is on top and the oldest layer is on the bottom.

15 Superposition is well illustrated in the rocks of the Grand Canyon

16 Geologic Time Relative dating and the geologic time scale Principle of fossil succession fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order. Therefore, any time period can be recognized by its fossil content.

17 The Nature of Scientific Inquiry Science assumes the natural world is consistent and predictable. The goal of science is to discover patterns in nature and use the knowledge to make predictions. Scientists collect data through observation and measurements.

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19 The Nature of Scientific Inquiry, Continued How or why things happen are explained using: Hypothesis a tentative (or untested) explanation Theory a well-tested and widely accepted view that the scientific community agrees best explains certain observable facts

20 The Nature of Scientific Inquiry, Continued Scientific methods involves: Gathering facts through observations Formulation of hypotheses and theories There is no fixed path that scientists follow that leads to scientific knowledge.

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22 A View of Earth Earth is a planet that is small and self-contained. Earth s four spheres are: 1. Hydrosphere 2. Atmosphere 3. Biosphere 4. Geosphere

23 A View of Earth From Apollo 17

24 Earth as a System Earth is a dynamic planet with many interacting parts or spheres. Earth system science: Aims to study Earth as a system composed of numerous interacting parts, or subsystems Employs an interdisciplinary approach to solve global environmental problems

25 Earth as a System, Continued What is a system? Any size group of interacting parts that form a complex whole Open vs. closed systems Feedback mechanisms Negative feedback maintains the status quo. Positive feedback enhances or drives changes.

26 Earth as a System, Continued Cycles in the Earth System Hydrologic cycle Rock cycle An interface is a common boundary where different parts of a system come in contact and interact.

27 The Interface between the Hydrologic and Rock Cycles

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29 Earth as a System The Earth system is powered by the Sun that drives external processes in the following: Atmosphere Hydrosphere At Earth s surface The Earth system is also powered by Earth s interior.

30 Early Evolution of Earth Origin of planet Earth Most researchers believe Earth and other planets formed at essentially the same time. Nebular hypothesis Solar system evolved from an enormous rotating cloud called the solar nebula Composed of hydrogen and helium Nebula began to contract about 5 billion years ago.

31 Early Evolution of Earth, Continued Origin of planet Earth Nebular hypothesis Assumes a flat, disk shape with the protosun (pre-sun) at the center Inner planets begin to form from metallic and rocky substances. Larger outer planets began forming from fragments of ices (H 2 O, CO 2, and others).

32 The Nebular Theory

33 Early Evolution of Earth Formation of Earth s layered structure Metals sank to the center. Molten rock rose to produce a primitive crust. Chemical segregation established the three basic divisions of Earth s interior. A primitive atmosphere evolved from gases in Earth s interior.

34 Earth s Internal Structure Layers defined by composition: Crust Mantle Core Layers defined by physical properties: Lithosphere Asthenosphere Mesosphere Inner and outer core

35 Earth s Layered Structure

36 The Face of Earth Earth s surface: Continents Oceans Continents: Mountain belts Most prominent feature of continents The stable interior Also called a craton composed of shields and stable platforms

37 Earth s Mountain Belts, Stable Platforms, and Shields

38 The Face of Earth Ocean basins: Continental margins Includes the continental shelf, continental slope, and the continental rise Deep-ocean basins: Abyssal plains Oceanic trenches Seamounts

39 The Face of Earth, Continued Ocean basins: Oceanic ridge system Most prominent topographic feature on Earth Composed of igneous rock that has been fractured and uplifted

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42 Rocks and the Rock Cycle Basic rock types: Igneous rocks Cooling and solidification of magma (molten rock) Examples include granite and basalt. Sedimentary rocks Accumulate in layers at Earth s surface Sediments are derived from weathering of preexisting rocks

43 Granite (an Igneous Rock) in Yosemite National Park, CA

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45 Rocks and the Rock Cycle Basic rock types: Sedimentary rocks Examples include sandstone and limestone. Metamorphic rocks Formed by changing preexisting igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks Driving forces are heat and pressure. Examples include gneiss and marble.

46 Sandstone (a Sedimentary Rock) in Zion National Park, Utah

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49 Rocks and the Rock Cycle The rock cycle: one of Earth s subsystems The loop that involves the processes by which one rock changes to another. Illustrates the various processes and paths as Earth materials change both on the surface and inside the Earth

50 The Rock Cycle

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52 Laboratory Manual

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2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1

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