Article: Report on gravity analysis

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1 Article: Report on gravity analysis Brownfields exploration using constrained gravity inversions By Chris Wijns (First Quantum Minerals Ltd) and Daniel Core (Fathom Geophysics LLC)

2 Summary Gravity measurements are one of the more useful datasets in the exploration for high-density massive sulphide mineralisation. However, the fall-off of signal strength with depth limits the usefulness of surface data alone. Borehole and core density measurements can be used to constrain surface gravity inversions and extend both their depth of investigation and lateral resolution. Conversely, surface gravity measurements can be used to constrain, via inversion, the interpolation of downhole density measurements when building density (specific gravity) models for resource calculations. In this study, various specific-gravity models act as reference models for surface gravity inversions, with appropriate unweighting away from drill holes. The resulting inverted models fulfil two roles: (1) they improve upon interpolated 3D specific-gravity models for resource calculations, and (2) they provide vastly superior exploration tools over inversions of the surface data alone. The brownfields exploration mandate at the Kevitsa nickel-copper deposit in northern Finland is to find areas of massive sulphide enrichment within a large-tonnage, low-grade orebody. For this reason, we have concentrated on the differences between inverted results and the resource density models. Any positive differences represent previously unmodelled high density zones, which are potential massive sulphide targets between drill holes. Introduction The high density of massive sulphide ore often makes gravity measurements amenable to targeting such deposits (e.g., Macintosh et al., 1999; Sampson and Bourne, 2001). Unfortunately, most nickel sulphide orebodies are hosted within dense mafic or ultramafic rocks, reducing the density contrast available to create an anomalous signature. The Kevitsa Ni-Cu deposit in Central Lapland, Finland, is basically undetectable through surface gravity because it is composed mostly of disseminated sulphides within a dense mafic intrusion. This difficulty in detection at Kevitsa extends to most geophysical methods, including magnetics and EM. Ahead of the start of mining, the goal of exploration in the vicinity of the deposit is to discover any remobilised massive sulphide accumulations within or near this low-grade orebody. Surface gravity measurements are available on 100 m spaced lines, with stations every 20 m. This detailed dataset was collected by the Finnish Geological Survey (GTK) in 1984 (Figure 1). 2

3 Figure 1: Kevitsa surface gravity with future pit outline in white. The pit is about 1 kilometre across. There is also a large database of downhole density measurements, from both specific gravity measurements for resource work, and in-situ logging (Figure 2). 3

4 Figure 2: Diamond holes with density logs, over future Kevitsa pit shell. Our approach is to use the downhole data to constrain inversions of the surface gravity, with particular emphasis on the representation of the downhole data as reference models within the inversions. The purpose of the inversions is two-fold: they return density models for resource work that have been improved by respecting surface data, and they may also point to zones of higher density massive sulphides. Because the density contrasts between host rocks and disseminated ore are small over the volume of the model, we concentrate on analysing the differences between the reference models (built from the downhole data) and the inverted surface data. Positive differences represent high density zones that are absent from the resource model and logging. These represent potential massive sulphide targets between drill holes. 4

5 Method and Results Gravity inversions were completed using the University of British Columbia GRAV3D inversion software. The input data are gridded surface gravity measurements with a grid cell size of 10 m. The mesh for the inversion has a cell size of 20 m in the X and Y directions, 10 m near surface in the Z direction and 20 m at depth. The alpha parameters in GRAV3D were used to smooth the inversion horizontally since the units are generally sub-horizontal. Reference models, built from the density logs, constrain the inversions of the surface data. The greatest challenge with using downhole data over a 3D volume is the manner in which these very localised reference measurements are extrapolated between boreholes. The following list gives average densities per lithology, which were used statistically for those reference models based on the geology. Vein: Average SG 2.99 Greenstone: Average SG 3.00 Xenolith: Average SG 3.10 Ultramafic (dunite): Average SG 3.14 Gabbro: Average SG 3.15 Olivine websterite: Average SG 3.18 Olivine pyroxenite: Average SG 3.23 Downhole measurements are always completely honoured, within the smoothing that occurs from grouping measurements into cells of 10 or 20 m vertical extent. Bounds are placed on the cells to keep inversion values within certain ranges. The ranges are more restrictive near the drill holes and less restrictive away from the drill holes. An alternative method of variable weighting of the reference model was not as effective as using the bounds because unrealistic values were produced in portions of the inversion volume. The combination of weighting and bounds produces results that are similar to using the bounds alone. Reference models vary from unconstrained, isotropic kriging of the logged data (Figure 3), to radial basis function interpolation within the units in the 3D geological model with a trend imposed to reflect the sub-horizontal mafic layering. 5

6 Figure 3: Specific gravity reference model using isotropic kriging of downhole measurements, viewed from below and south. Displayed density shells range from 3.15 g/cc (dark green) to over 3.3 g/cc (orange). The width of the reference model is about 2 kilometres, and it reaches 1 kilometre in depth. The main goal of the inversions is to identify areas of high density, imposed by the surface gravity, that do not appear in the logging. These high-density targets could represent massive sulphides that were not intersected by drilling. We focus on such targets by concentrating on the differences between the inverted models and the reference models. Figure 4 illustrates the difference between an inversion result and its isotropically kriged reference model. 6

7 Figure 4: Differences greater than 0.15 g/cc between inverted results and resource density model appear in orange. The green point cloud represents the resource model 3.15 g/cc shell seen in Figure 3, from the same viewpoint. Orange and red zones represent differences of greater than 0.15 g/cc. Care must be taken when interpreting differences that lie close to the edge of the logging and reference model, where the reference model interpolation is not robust. Zones of positive anomalism are checked against assays and geological logging for intersecting and surrounding drill holes, as there are numerous drill holes without density data. Any zones that have not been tested by drilling, such as the pod in the lower right of Figure 5, become possible targets. 7

8 Figure 5: The zone of positive density anomalism, with respect to the reference model, appearing at the lower right, is untested by drilling. This pod measures 100 x 130 metres, although actual sizes vary with the chosen reference densities and background averages. Bearing in mind the geological model of structurally remobilized and upgraded sulphides, zones on or near mapped and interpreted structures become prioritised as new drill targets. A secondary result of the inversion exercise is an improved specific gravity model for resource modelling. Rather than the common approach of an unconstrained or statistically constrained interpolation of core SG measurements into a 3D volume, the interpolation in this case is done via inversion of the surface gravity data. This yields an SG model that respects both the logged data and the surface data. 8

9 Conclusions Inversions of surface gravity data quickly run out of resolution at depth unless they are constrained by known densities. A large database of downhole measurements provides reference models for tight constraints on gravity inversions over the Kevitsa Ni-Cu deposit. Positive differences between the inverted density distribution and the reference model may signal zones of more massive sulphides within this disseminated orebody. The inversion models also provide more robust density distributions for use in resource calculations. Acknowledgments The geological reference model was constructed by Jigsaw Geoscience Pty Ltd, through the combined logging and interpretation efforts of Jigsaw and First Quantum personnel. References McIntosh, S.M., Gill, J.P. and Mountford, A.J., 1999, The geophysical response of the Las Cruces massive sulphide deposit: Exploration Geophysics, 30, Sampson, L. and Bourne, B., 2001, The geophysical characteristics of the Trilogy massive sulphide deposit, Ravensthorpe, Western Australia: Exploration Geophysics 32,

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