YILGARN REGOLITH AND LANDSCAPE
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1 Short Course for Northern Star Resources YILGARN REGOLITH AND LANDSCAPE Mehrooz F Aspandiar Department of Applied Geology Western Australian School of Mines
2 The Yilgarn Craton surface regolith Image: Churhward & Anand, 2000
3 Regolith-landforms: Variable Regolith Fe saprolite Lateritic residuum Mottled saprolite saprolite Cenozoic sediments Mottled saprolite Photograph & Concept C. Butt
4 Relict Erosional Depositional Scheme R lateritic gravel and duricrust dominated terrane E Saprolite, shallow soil and bedrock dominated terrane D Sediment dominated terrane
5 Remote Sensing & Regolith-landforms 20 km Tertiary sediments Interface saprolite saprolite
6 Regolith-landforms of Northern Yilgarn From Anand & Butt (2010)
7 Main Phanerozoic Sediment relationships Transported regolith 4. Miocene gravelly sand 5. Miocene to Pliocene gravelly to sand variable sediments 6. Quaternary sand dunes Saprolite Bedrock 1. Permian boulder clays, grits, sandstone 2. Paleocene Wollabur gravel & sandstone 3. Miocene Perkolli shale (clays & lenses of gravel) From Anand & Butt (2010)
8 Stratigraphy of transported regolith in the Yilgarn Lithology Age Pleistocene Regolith Unit Hardpan Description Sandy clay to clay sand with Fe gravel Interpreted depositional environment Aeolian, fluvial, colluvial Pliocene Nodular ferricrete Fe gravel + clay Sandy clay with clay spherites Granule to pebble, hematite + maghemite Overbank deposits Fluvial, colluvial Early Eocene to Mid Miocene Permian Archean Megamottled clay Fe pisolitic clay Gravel + sand Mottled mudstone Sandstone Saprolite White to cream clay with quartz, kaolinite, lignite Grey clay with kaolinite, smectite Fe gravel & sand, vein quartz Mudstone to sandstone with conglomerate base Compiled from Dusci (1994), debrokert (2002), Anand et al. (2013) Overbank shallow wetland Fluvial channel Glacial outflow
9 Weathering history and landscape evolution - 1 Late Permian to Cretaceous extension weathering with stable landsurface conditions Late Cretaceous to Eocene drop in sea-levels (base level change) caused inset valleys to develop in the landscape with erosion After Anand & Butt (2010)
10 Weathering history and landscape evolution - 2 Mid Eocene - Miocene filling of inset valleys due higher sea-levels Saprolite Bedrock Mid-Miocene stable conditions favouring weathering Late Miocene to current local erosion and sedimentation and onset of aridity drop in water tables
11 Yilgarn Inset valley paleochannel fills Salt lakes Paleodrainage Trunk inset valley fill Trunk inset valley fill (inferred) After de Brokert (2002), compiled from Kern & Commander (1993)
12 Yilgarn Inset Valley Paleochannels - Magnetics RTP southeast of Laverton 1VD 30 km southeast of Laverton 6 km 6 km Paleochannel sediments that have maghemite bearing pisolites show up on magnetic survey images distributary channel form
13 Paleochannels (Inset-valley fills) Images: Ravi Anand
14 From Dusci (1994) Inset valley paleochannel fill stratigraphy Pliocene Mixed facies polymictic Fe gravel Mixed facies polymictic Fe gravel Oligo- Miocene Sandy-clay facies with Fe gravels Sandy-clay facies with Fe gravels Late Eocene Mega mottled clay facies White clay Grey to mega mottled clay facies Perkolilli shale Mega mottled clay Grey clay Middle Eocene Sand facies Sand facies Wollabur sandstone Quartz pebble Quartz pebble White clay Paleocene Hiatus Sand facies Precambrian
15 Late Cenozoic sediments & regolith Calcrete Late Cenzoic sediments Mottled ultramafic saprolite Slabby ferricrete Mottled sandy clay Stratigraphic column from Anand & Butt (2010)
16 Late Cenozoic sediments & regolith Vermiform ferricrete formd within pebbly clay sand sediments- unconformable over saprolite Slabby to nodular ferricrete in clay sediments
17 Pleistocene sediments - hardpan
18 Regolith-Landform relationships Erosional rises/low hills
19 Regolith-Landform relationships Erosional - Breakaways
20 Regolith-landform relationships Relief Inversion in landscapes
21 Profile modifications across the Yilgarn- Onset of aridity Profiles have mineralogical & geochemical characteristics of present climate superimposed on those from previous one Humid Iron oxides Acid Ferruginous duricrust, ferricrete Silica Acid Pedogenic silcrete Aluminosilicates Acid-nuetral Hardpan Silica Acid-neutral Hardpan, groundwater silcrete Carbonates, Alkaline Calcrete, gypcrete Arid Halides, sulfates Alkaline Evaporites in playas, soils Lowering of water-table Leaching of vadose zone under oxidizing & possibly saline conditions Dehydration of hardening of phases
22 Regolith Minerals Types, Nature & Significance
23 Types of regolith minerals Phyllosilicates or Clay Minerals (layer silicates) Smectites, kaolinite, illite, vermiculite & interstratified varieties of these Framework Silicates opal A & opal-ct, quartz Oxides & hydroxides of Fe, Mn, Al & Ti Geothite, hematite, maghemite (all Fe), gibbsite (Al), lithophorite (Mn) Sulfates - gypsum, jarosite, alunite Carbonates calcite, dolomite, magnesite Chlorides - halite Phosphates crandalite, florencite, plumbogummite
24 Regolith Minerals Fine Grained Mixtures 2 mic Most are very fine-grained (high surface areas) The fine size and crystal-chemical properties impart a dynamic nature to them hydrolyzable surfaces or functional groups = excellent adsorbers of elements flexibility in exchanging metals (cation exchange) Illite Hem 5nm
25 Why identify, quantify and understand regolith minerals? They provide clues to the physiochemical conditions of the regolith such as ph, Eh, temperature, drainage, presence of anions Present & past environments and processes They regulate trace and major element mobility in the regolith and therefore impact on geochemistry of regolith, groundwaters and surface waters Mineral Hosts According to a geochemist, to interpret most forms of geochemical data- three rules apply: mineralogy, mineralogy and mineralogy!
26 Iron oxide types and their formation conditions Hematite Fe 2 O 3 Red to reddish brown. Favoured under low water activity, low Al activity, high organic matter and high temperature. Forms due to transformation of ferrihydrite (rapid oxidation of Fe 2+ ) Goethite FeOOH Brownish-yellow. High water activity, high organic matter, high Al activity and low temperatures. Forms from oxidation of Fe 2+
27 Iron oxide types and their formation conditions Maghemite γ-fe 3 O 4 Dark brown to black. Magnetic. Forms by the oxidation of magnetite, or dehydration of lepidocrocite or heating of Fe hydroxides with organic matter. Highly weathered regolith & forest fires Lepidocrocite γ-feooh Orange-brown. Polymorph of goethite (different structure same composition). Forms by slow oxidation of Fe 2+. Found in seasonally anaerobic but non-calcerous soils by slow oxidation Magnetite Fe 3 O 4 Black. Magnetic. Inherited from parent rock or forms in reducing conditions or via magnetotactic bacteria. Submerged soils
28 Iron oxide formation, dissolution and transformations Once formed, iron oxides transform via two processes Via dissolution and reprecipitation as another oxide Via structural rearrangement of another oxide where the structure reorganizes to a new one Modified after Bigham et al (2001)
29 Minerals & regolith environments ph vs Anions The presence of specific minerals provides information on ph and type of dominant anion present in the system Modified Taylor & Eggleton
30 Minerals & regolith environments ph vs Eh (redox condition) Iron oxides, iron-sulfates, iron sulfides and carbonate minerals are indicators of ph and redox (oxidizing or reducing) conditions Sulfide weathering Acid sulfate soils Acid Mine Drainage Salt Lakes Wetlands Constructed drains Modified after Taylor & Eggleton (2001)
31 Minerals & regolith environments Profile Drainage (& Climate) Impeded or slow groundwater flow results in smectite-carbonategoethite association Free flow (well-drained) results in most stable assemblage -kaolinitehematite Need to consider climate and drainage together Well drained, dry Hematite + kaolinite + quartz e.g. smectites may indicate aridity and/or impeded drainage Magnesite Smectite + smectite Goethite
32 Regolith Environments Wet vs Dry Use iron oxides as indicators Goethite (yellow-brown) high water activity Hematite (red to dark red) low water activity This association provides wet vs dry environmental information on Micro fine mottles Profile brown mottles below red soil Landscape red crests versus yellow valleys Regional scale - red areas versus yellow 1m Hematite dominant Goethite dominant
33 Minerals & regolith environments Drainage & Landsacpe Local regolith environment is dictated by landscape position because landscape position controls drainage Generally, hill crests are drier because they are well drained Valleys are wetter because poorly drained
34 In Situ vs Transported Kaolinite Crystallinity Kaolinite crystallinity or disorder Kaolinite Crystallinity Index (KCI) determined via reflectance spectra (ASD or HyLogger) using kaolinite doublet In situ = well crystalline (ordered) Transported = poorly crystalline Saprolite Hardpan - colluvium However, not always true Saprock After Phang (2000)
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