Earth. Temp. increases with depth, the thermal gradient is 25 o C/km. Pressure and density also increase with depth.
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1 Plate Tectonics
2 Earth Earth overall average density = 5.5 g/cm 3. Temp. increases with depth, the thermal gradient is 25 o C/km. Pressure and density also increase with depth. Spheroid: with a longer major axis along the equator, a shorter minor axis in polar direction. (radius difference about 12 miles) The surface relief is around 12 miles.
3 Major Landform Features Continents Shields: Extensive flat region of complexly deformed ancient crystalline rocks (igneous & metamorphic basement complex) formed b/w 1-4 Ga. Stable Platforms: The areas have been stable during the last 500 Myrs. Mountain belts: Rugged terrain, the most active geologic regions on the continents, typically located along margins of continents. Ocean Floor Mid-Ocean Ridge: The most striking feature with peaks rising ~2 miles and extending ~70,000km (more than 40,000miles), and a central cleft (graben) that runs through the axis of the ridge. Trenches: Lowest areas on the earth, adjacent to chains of volcanoes at subduction zones. Continental Margins: transition zone b/w continent and ocean basin, including continental shelf and continental slope. Abyssal floor: the broad deep ocean basins.
4 Earth s Interior Structure (1): How We Determine It Through geophysical studies of gravity, density. Geologists use seismic waves to image the interior structure of the Earth. Abrupt changes in seismic-wave velocities occur at particular depths and suggests that Earth must be composed of distinct layers. Geologists use the geochemistry of rocks to determine chemistry of deep interior. Geologists study meteorites to determine the chemistry of the Earth.
5 Earth Interior (2) Earth interior: Three principal layers by chemical properties: Crust Mantle Core Earth interior: five major divisions by physical properties: Lithosphere Continental crust, oceanic crust Moho discontinuity Upper rigid mantle Asthenosphere Mesosphere Outer core Inner core
6 Discovering Earth s Major Boundaries The Moho (Mohorovicic discontinuity) 1. Discovered in 1909 by Andrija Mohoroviĉiĉ. 2. Separates crustal materials from underlying mantle. 3. Identified by a change in the velocity of P waves.
7 Earth Interior (3): Chemical and Physical Summary Crust: The outermost rigid layer, approx miles thick. Continental crust: Lighter (less dense) and thicker than oceanic crust, granitic composition. Oceanic Crust: Heavier (denser) and thinner, basaltic composition.
8 Earth Interior (3): Chemical and Physical Summary Mantle: The most massive layer, 80% of the earth s volume, ultramafic rocks composition. Upper rigid mantle: Attached to the lithosphere. Asthenosphere: Plastic (semi-liquid) layer, also known as LVZ (lower velocity zone for seismic waves). Mesosphere: Bulk of the lower mantle.
9 Earth Interior (3): Chemical and Physical Summary Core Outer core: Liquid, S-waves do not transmit through it, flow generates Earth s magnetic field! Inner core: Highly compacted Ni & Fe alloy, solid & dense layer.
10 Tectonic Processes (1) Continental Drift: Modern theory for how/why the tectonic plates move. Proposed by Alfred Wegener (1915). He proposed a supercontinent concept (Pangaea) existed back Ma. The Pangaea started to break up and discrete segments of land began to move in relation to each other, forming today's continental landmasses. EVIDENCE 1. Geographic fit of continents: Continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle along the continental shelf. 2. Paleoclimatology: Ancient glacial deposits are found today in tropical regions of South Africa, Australia, India. 3. Paleontological: Fossils on different land masses are similar (these animals could not have crossed large oceans). 4. Paleomagnitism: Apparent polar wandering.
11 Paleomagnetism: Earth s Magnetic Field Magnetic minerals preserve the magnetic signature of the Earth through time. Magnetic signature is characterized by Inclination and Declination. Inclination: the angle magnetic minerals dip into Earth; 0 Equator, 90 poles. Varies with latitude: can therefore determine paleolatitude! Declination: the measured difference between magnetic North and True North.
12 Tectonic Processes (2) Seafloor Spreading s Harry Hess proposed that sea floor does not stand still as a whole piece, and it consists of blocks that move relative to each other. New oceanic crust forms at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outward. EVIDENCE 1. Paleomagnetic data of seafloor basalts. 2. The age of the rocks on the sea floor. 3. The age and thickness of deep-sea sediments covering basalts. 4. Oceanic ridge and fracture zones (seafloor physiography).
13 Paleomagnetism: Earth s Magnetic Field At the start of WWII ( ), magnetometers were towed behind Navy boats looking for German U-boats. Magnetometers were also used to better constrain the depth of the world s oceans. Subsequent interpretation of these data provided evidence that the seafloor contained magnetic signatures. Magnetic signatures in basalt had normal and reversed polarity.
14 A Scientific Revolution Begins During the 1950s and 1960s, technological strides permitted extensive mapping of the ocean floor. The seafloor spreading hypothesis was proposed by Harry Hess in the early 1960s. In 1963, Vine and Matthews tied the discovery of magnetic stripes in the oceanic crust near ridges to Hess s concept of seafloor spreading.
15 Plate Tectonics (3) Tectonics Lithosphere is broken into a number of rigid plates bounded by ocean spreading ridges, trenches, faults/rifts, and mountains. These plates float and move on the asthenosphere. No major deformation occurs within each plate; most tectonic deformation is concentrated along plate boundaries. Plates move relative to each other at ~2-17cm/year. The driving mechanism for the movement is convection within the Earth s interior, ridge push & slab pull. Distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain belts, trench, rift zones defines plate boundaries.
16 Plate Tectonics: The New Paradigm Earth s major plates Seven major lithospheric plates. Plates are in motion and are continually changing in shape and size. The largest plate is the Pacific plate. Several plates include an entire continent plus a large area of seafloor.
17 Plate Tectonics: The New Paradigm Plate boundaries Interactions among individual plates occur along their boundaries. Major types of plate boundaries: Divergent plate boundaries (constructive/passive margins) Convergent plate boundaries (destructive/active margins) Transform fault boundaries (conservative margins)
18 Plate Boundaries Divergent (constructive): plates move away from each other, and new crust is created. Convergent (destructive): plates move toward each other and parts of the plates are destroyed by subduction (one plate dives under another). Transform (conservative): Plates slide horizontally past one another, no major crust destruction or creation.
19 Observe the pattern of elevations (brown = high) Mountains in belts Southern Eurasia high Oceans vs. continents Some belts next to trenches East Africa high Most of continents gentle and low b2
20 Divergent Boundaries Continental Rifting: Formation of continental rift valley or new ocean basin. Mid-oceanic ridge: formation of new ocean crust (seafloor spreading). Basaltic Volcanism. Shallow earthquakes.
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22 Three subtypes Convergent Boundaries C-C: A continental plate collides with a continental plate. Crust thickening & mountain building process. Mountain building & shallow earthquakes. C-O: continental & oceanic plate collide. Subduction creates trenches and volcanic arc system. Shallow & deep earthquakes. Andesitic volcanism. Mountain building. O-O: oceanic to oceanic plate collision. Creation of volcanic Island Arcs Backarc shallow sea, forearc trench & accretionary wedge. Shallow and deep earthquakes.
23 Transform Boundary Plates slide horizontally past one another, no major crust destruction or creation. Transform faults Most join two segments of a mid-ocean ridge along breaks in the oceanic crust known as fracture zones. A few (the San Andreas Fault) cut through continental crust. Horizontal Displacement of Land Masses. Shallow and Intermediate Depth Earthquakes.
24 What Drives Plate Motions? Mantle convection: convective flow in the mantle is the basic driving force of plate tectonics. Forces that drive plate motion: Slab-pull Ridge push 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
25 Hot Spots (Mantle Plumes) Relatively stationary with respect to the mantle. Occur in the interior of plates or plate boundaries. Mantle plumes Long-lived structures. Some originate at great depth (Core-Mantle Boundary). Examples: Hawaii, Yellowstone
Earth overall average density = 5.5 g/cm 3 Temp increases with depth, the thermal gradient 30 0 C/km Pressure and the density also increase with
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