ENGRG Introduction to GIS
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1 ENGRG Introduction to GIS Michael Piasecki March 17, 2014 Lecture 08: Terrain Analysis
2 Outline: Terrain Analysis Earth Surface Representation Contour TIN Mass Points Digital Elevation Models Slope and Aspect Hydrology Analysis Flow direction Flow accumulation Watershed View sheds 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 2
3 The Big Picture: Raster Analysis Models Suitability modeling most spatial models involve finding optimum locations, such as finding the best location to build a new school, a landfill, or a resettlement site. Distance modeling what is the best path to build a highway between Gainesville and Jacksonville? Hydrologic modeling In which direction will the water flow? Surface modeling what is the pollution level for various locations in a county? 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 3
4 Representing Surfaces Surfaces involve a third elevation value (z) in addition to the x,y horizontal values Surfaces are complex to represent since there are an infinite number of potential points to model The basic data for terrain elevation are derived generally from one of three sources: digitized contours photogrammetric data capture (including aerial photography and digital satellite imagery); z surveying y x 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 4
5 Digital Representation of Terrain A digital representation of terrain is known as: Raster based Digital Elevation Model (DEM) or Digital Terrain Model (DTM) Regular spaced set of elevation points (z values) Vector based Triangulated Irregular Networks (TIN) Irregular triangles with elevations at the three corners Vector based contour lines Lines joining points of equal elevation, at a specified interval Massed points and breaklines Massed points: Any set of regular or irregularly spaced point elevations Breaklines: point elevations along a line of significant change in slope (valley floor, ridge crest) 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 5
6 Digital representation to Terrain 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 6
7 Contour (isolines) Lines Contour lines, or isolines connect points that have the same elevation Advantages Familiar to many people Easy to obtain mental picture of surface Close lines = steep slope Uphill V = stream Downhill V or bulge = ridge Circle = hill top or basin Disadvantages Poor for computer representation: no formal digital model Must convert to raster or TIN for analysis There is no information about how the terrain changes between lines 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 7
8 Triangulated Irregular Network A set of adjacent, nonoverlapping triangles computed from irregularly spaced points, with x, y horizontal coordinates and z vertical elevations. The inclination of the terrain is assumed to be constant within each triangle Advantages Can capture significant slope features (ridges, etc) Efficient since require few triangles in flat areas Easy for certain analyses: slope, aspect, volume Disadvantages Analysis involving comparison with other layers difficult The coordinates of the vertices of each triangle are stored as well as its inclination and direction 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 8
9 Massed Points Clouds of points simply represent points where elevation data are known Can be as detailed as possible Lots of points in high variable areas Fewer points in homogeneous areas LIght Detection And Ranging - LIDAR 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 9
10 Digital Elevation Models (DEM) Any digital representation of a topographic surface (broad concept) Most often a raster or regular grid of spot heights Digital Terrain Model or DTM may actually be a more generic term for any digital representation of a topographic surface, but it is not so widely used; DTM and DEM is interchangeable terms Digital Surface Model or DSM include above ground features such as building and vegetation canopies. 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 10
11 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) Each cell stores the elevation value as an attribute two approaches for determining the surface z value of a location between sample points. In a lattice, each mesh point represents a value on the surface only at the center of the grid cell. The z value is approximated by interpolation between adjacent sample points; it does not imply an area of constant value. A surface grid considers each sample as a square cell with a constant surface value. Advantages Simple conceptual model Data cheap to obtain Easy to relate to other raster data Irregularly spaced set of points can be converted to regular spacing by interpolation Disadvantages Does not conform to variability of the terrain Linear features not well represented 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 11
12 Digital Elevation Models (DEM) Simplest form of digital representation of topography and the most common A variety of DEMs are available, including coverage of much of the US from the US Geological Survey (USGS) SRTM: Shuttle Radar Topography Mission DLG: Digital Linear Graph DRG: Digital Raster Graphic DTED: Digital Terrain Elevation Data ASTER: Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer Sensor 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 12
13 Common USGS DEM Data Sources Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) (30m US wide) 1/3" (10m), National Elevation Dataset (NED) 1" (30m) DEMs from 1:24,000 scale map 3" (100m) DEMs from 1:250,000 scale maps 30" (1km) DEM of the earth (GTOPO30) 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 13
14 SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission 1 arc second (30m) elevation data for the United States, 3 arc second (100m) data for the globe Produced by radar measurements from a Shuttle mission, Feb 11 22, ainingdata.html 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 14
15 SRTM Data Coverage Map 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 15
16 Santa Barbara, California 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 16
17 San Andreas Fault, California 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 17
18 Salt Lake City, Utah 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 18
19 Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 19
20 GTOPO30 Source: 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 20
21 Seamless Data Distribution 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 21
22 Use of DEM Extracting terrain parameters Slope, aspect, spot elevations Source for contour lines Modeling water flow or mass movement (Watersheds, drainage networks, stream channels) Creation of relief maps Rendering of 3D visualizations. Terrain analyses in geomorphology and physical geography 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 22
23 Terrain Analysis: Slope Slope refers to the inclination of the terrain y Calculated as percentage or degrees. x Degrees Slope( ) tan 1 ( y x ) 45 Degree < > 100% Percentage y Slope(%) 100 x 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 23
24 Slope Direction Degrees Slope( ) tan Percentage 1 ( y x y Slope(%) 100 x ) But how to calculate it 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 24
25 Slope Calculation: 4 nearest cells Slope arctan dz dx 2 dz dy 2 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 25
26 Slope Calculation: using 4 nearest cells Do you remember Kernel? Set of constants; mathematical functions applied for every moving window location 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 26
27 Slope Calculation: 3 rd order finite difference 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 27
28 Terrain Analysis: Aspect Aspect has significant effects on vegetation on slopes. In the northern hemisphere, south facing slopes receive more sunlight and are drier than north facing slopes. South 225º North 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 28
29 Aspect Aspect: Direction that a surface faces Typically reported as an azimuth angle (measured in degrees from the north ) Used to: Determine Incident solar radiation Visibility 225º 29
30 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 30
31 Comparison of Shaded Relief Maps for 315º and 135º Sun Angles. Sun Azimuth = 315º; Elevation = 45º Sun Azimuth = 135º, Elev 45º 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 31
32 Solar Radiation Analysis Incoming solar radiation (insolation) Landscape scales Topography Elevation, Orientation (slope and aspect), Shadows cast by topographic features 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 32
33 Where should construct a Vineyard? 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 33
34 Hydrologic functions on DEMs Modeling the topographic form of a drainage basin Determining the drainage network and associated drainage divides Estimating slopes for understanding drainage patterns and processes 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 34
35 Understanding drainage systems Channel 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 35
36 Basic Workflow of Hydrologic Analysis 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 36
37 River Network & SubwaterSheds 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 37
38 Flow Direction Useful for finding drainage networks and drainage divides Direction is determined by the elevation of surrounding cells Direction of Steepest Descent Water can flow only into one cell Water is assumed to flow into one other cell, unless there is a sink GIS model assumes no sinks 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 38
39 A natural sink? Remove it By default, this sink is removed, whether or not it is real. 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 39
40 Flow direction in a DEM Flow directions for individual cells 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 40
41 Eight Direction Pour Point Model /17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 41
42 Flow Direction Grid /17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 42
43 Flow Direction Grid /17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 43
44 Flow accumulation The number of cells, or area, which contribute to runoff of a given cell Accumulation, once it reaches a threshold appropriate to an region, forms a drainage channel Flow accumulation measures the area of a watershed that contributes runoff to a given cell 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 44
45 Flow accumulation as drainage network Drainage network as defined by cells above threshold value for region. 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 45
46 Finding watersheds Begin at a source cell in a flow direction database, which is derived from a DEM (not from the DEM itself) Find all cells that flow into the source cell Iteratively find all cells that flow into those cells All of these cells comprises the watershed The resulting watershed is generalized, based on the cell size of the DEM 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 46
47 Watersheds Once done manually Contour lines (brown) Drainage (blue) Watershed boundary (red) 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 47
48 Hydrology Extension in ArcGIS 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 48
49 Predictive Equations Runoff Availability Equation Can be used to predict the amount of water that will become runoff given a specific rainfall event For example, how much runoff can be expected if there is an inch of rain over a clay soil with dense vegetation Based on soil characteristics and land cover Q = (sqrt(p 0.2 * (1000/CN 10))) / (p * (1000/CN 10)) Where: Q = total water available for runoff p = precipitation CN = curve number 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 49
50 Runoff Availability Equation Equation based on the CN number CN number based on soil and land cover characteristics both easily available in raster or vector format for GIS CN values range from (like a percentage) Note: concrete has a CN value of nearly 100 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 50
51 Some Common Curve Numbers 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 51
52 Runoff Availability Flow Chart 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 52
53 Visibility What land is visible from the selected location? Forest lookout stations Wireless telephone base stations Microwave towers Highway advertisement pole 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 53
54 Viewsheds 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 54
55 Viewsheds 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 55
56 An example 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 56
57 Shaded Relief Shaded Relief combines patterns of shadow with map information to give a 3D effect 3D views are also used to calculate the visibility of a particular area: Viewshed Can a cell phone receive a call in a particular place? 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 57
58 Shaded Maps 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 58
59 Tools in ArcGIS Spatial Analyst ArcScene provides you a 3D GIS analyst extension Arc GIS allows you to take a digital elevation model and derive: Hillshade Aspect Slope Contours 3/17/2014 ENGRG Intro to GIS 59
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