A-LEVEL A-LEVEL CHEMISTRY CHEMISTRY NOTES

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1 A-LEVEL A-LEVEL CHEMISTRY CHEMISTRY NOTES snaprevise.co.uk

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3 INDEX MODULE 1 (A2):PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY TOPIC 1: THERMODYNAMICS Born-Haber cycles Gibbs free-energy change, G, and entropy change, S TOPIC 2: RATE EQUATIONS Rate equations Determination of rate equation TOPIC 3: EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT K P FOR HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEMS Equilibrium constant K p for homogeneous systems TOPIC 4: ELECTRODE POTENTIALS AND ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS Electrode potentials and cells Commercial applications of electrochemical cells TOPIC 4: ACIDS AND BASES Bronsted Lowry acid base equilibria in aqueous solution Definition and determination of ph The ionic product of water Weak acids and bases, Ka for weak acids ph curves, titrations and indicators Buffer action MODULE 2 (A2): INORGANIC CHEMISTRY TOPIC 1: PROPERTIES OF PERIOD 3 ELEMENTS AND THEIR OXIDES Properties of period 3 elements and their oxides TOPIC 2: TRANSITION METALS General properties of transition metals Substitution reactions

4 3. Shapes of complex ions Formation of coloured ions Variable oxidation states Catalysts TOPIC 3: REACTIONS OF IONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION Reactions of ions in aqueous solution MODULE 3 (A2): ORGANIC CHEMISTRY TOPIC 1: OPTICAL ISOMERISM Optical activity TOPIC 2: ALDEHYDES AND KETONES Oxidation of aldehydes Nucleophilic addition Reduction of carbonyls by NaBH TOPIC 3: CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND DERIVATIVES Structure of Carboxylic Acids and Esters Carboxylic acids and esters The esterification reaction (production of esters) Hydrolysis of esters Uses of glycerol Acylation Mechanism for Addition-Elimination Reactions Acid Anhydrides TOPIC 4: AROMATIC CHEMISTRY Bonding Experimental evidence for the structure of benzene Naming arenes Electrophilic substitution Friedel-Crafts Acylation TOPIC 5: AMINES Preparation Base properties Basic strength Nucleophilic properties

5 TOPIC 6: POLYMERS Condensation polymers TOPIC 7: AMINO ACIDS, PROTEINS AND DNA Amino acids Proteins Enzymes Action of anticancer drugs TOPIC 8: ORGANIC SYNTHESIS Organic Synthesis TOPIC 9: NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY C NMR H NMR Spin-spin coupling peak splitting TOPIC 10: CHROMATOGRAPHY Chromatography Thin-layer Chromatography (TLC) Column Chromatography (CC)

6 MODULE 1 (A2) PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

7 TOPIC 1 Thermodynamics

8 Thermodynamics 1 Born-Haber cycles The lattice enthalpy, Δ L H, is the enthalpy change when one mole of a solid ionic lattice forms from its gaseous ions under standard conditions Depends on strength of the forces acting on ions in a lattice Strength of forces depends on: Product of the charges on ions (larger charges = larger forces) Sum of the radii of the cation and the anion (larger radii = smaller forces) Extent of covalency (more covalent = larger Δ L H ) Lattice enthalpies can be found using Born-Haber cycles, These are special versions of Hess cycles You can find Δ L H if you know the other energy terms in the cycle: Enthalpy of formation, Δ f H : the enthalpy change when a mole of a compound is formed from its elements (First/Second) Ionisation energy, Δ I(1/2) H : the energy required to remove a mole of electrons from a mole of gaseous atoms Enthalpy of atomisation, Δ a H : energy required to turn a molecule of an element into atoms in the gas phase e.g. Cl 2 (g) 2Cl(g) Bond enthalpy: the average heat needed to break a mole of covalent bonds, measured in the gaseous state (First/Second) Electron affinity, Δ EA(1/2) H : The standard enthalpy change when a mole of gaseous atoms is converted to a mole of gaseous ions, each with a single negative charge If you need to construct the Born-Haber cycle, start with a line for the elements in their standard states then add each step one by one snaprevise.co.uk 8

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