How do atoms of elements exist in the

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2 How do atoms of elements exist in the nature?

3 How do atoms of elements exist in the nature? But noble gases like He,Ne,Ar,Kr,Xe,Rn etc do not exist in the nature in the combined state..they exist as monoatomic gases.

4 Atoms of most elements (except noble gases) are not able to exist independently.

5 A group of two or more atoms known as molecules have independent existence.

6 Atoms of same element or of different elements can join to form molecules.

7 Example: E l A molecule l of oxygen is formed by joining i two atoms of oxygen (O ) 2

8 O O O

9 Example A molecule of water is formed by joining two atoms of hydrogen with one atom of oxygen (H O) 2

10 H H O

11 What is a molecule? The smallest particle of an element or a compound made up of group of two or more atoms or ions that is capable of independent existence and shows all the properties p of that substance is called as molecule.

12 H C N O Atoms cannot exist freely H H H O H C H H Molecules have free existence

13 What is a chemical bond? The attractive force which holds constituents (atoms, ions, molecules, etc.)together in different chemical species is called as chemical bond.

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15 Graphite

16 Crystal of sodium chloride

17 Noble gases or inert gases like Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn) are the most stable elements because atoms of these elements possess an octet structure i.e. eight electrons in the outer most orbit

18 Valence Electronic configuration electrons He (2) 1s 2 2 Ne (10) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 8 Ar (8) (18) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 8 Kr (36) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 6 8 Xe (54) 5s 2 5p 6 8

19 Sodium 11 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1 (Na) (2,8,1) 1 Chlorin e(cl) 17 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 5 (2,8,7) 7 Carbon (C) 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2 (2,4) 4 Nitroge ( ) 7 1s 2 2s 2 2p 3 n(n) (2,5) 5 6

20 Reason 1 for chemical bond formation; Tendency of atoms to attain octet structure The atoms of elements other than noble gases have no octet structure and hence try to attain eight electrons (( or two electrons) in their valence shell by combining with the same or other atoms.

21 Octet Rule = atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons so as to have 8 electrons C would liketo N N wouldliketo O wouldliketo Gain 4 electrons Gain 3 electrons Gain 2 electrons

22 When two or more atoms combine to form a molecule l the electrons in their hi outermost orbits are rearranged in such a way as to achieve octet or duplet structure of the nearest noble gas. This is called octet rule.

23 : Formation of NaCl Na(2,8,1) transfers it s excess electron to Cl atom (2,8,7) and thus Na atom acquires the configuration of Ne(2,8) and Cl acquires the configuration of Ar(2,8,8) Na Cl Na ,8, ,8.7 2,8 2,8,8, _ Cl

24 Reason 2 for chemical bond formation; Tendency of atoms to attain minimum energy and maximum stability (a)when ( two or more atoms combine to form a molecule, the potential energy of bonded system decreases.(b)bonded system has less energy than the unbonded system.( c)therefore atoms combine to form molecules to attain minimum energy and maximum stability

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26 Octet rule (Kossel and Lewis) Atoms can combine either by transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another or by sharing of valence electrons in order to have an octet electron structure in their valence shells. This is known as octet rule. This theory of chemical combination is known as electronic theory of chemical bonding.

27 Concept of valence electrons The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons, because the combining capacity of the element (i.e. valency) depends upon the number of these electrons.

28 Core electrons All the electrons present in the inner orbitals (core of the atom) excluding valence electrons are called core electrons which do not participate in chemical reaction.

29 Valence electron Nucleus Core electron Sodium atom2,8,1

30 18 group 1group 2 group 13 group 14 group 15 group 16group 17group

31 ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURES LEWIS SYMBOLS FOR THE ELEMENTS Symbols of atoms with dots to represent the valenceshell electrons H He: Li Be B C N O : F :Ne : Na Mg Al Si P S :Cl :Ar :

32 ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURES LEWIS SYMBOLS FOR THE ELEMENTS Symbols of atoms with dots to represent the valence-shell electrons H He: Li Be B C N O : F :Ne : Na Mg Al Si P S :Cl :Ar :

33 element Atomic number Electronic configuration Group number Valence electron s Lewis symbol Li 3 1s 2 1s Li. 2 2 Be 4 1s 2 2s B: B 5 1s 2 2s 2 2p C 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p B: C

34 element Atomic Electronic Grou Valen Lewis number configuration p num ber ce elect rons Symbols N 7 1s 2 2s 2 2p :N. 8-5 =3 O 8 1s 2 2s 2 2p O: 8-6 =2 Valence electrons 8-7 F 9 1s 2 2s 2 2p :F. =1

35 Significance of Lewis symbols The number of valence electrons (number of dots) helps to calculate the valency of the element. The valency is generally either equal to the number of dots in Lewis symbols or 8 minus the number of dots or valence electrons.

36 Types of Bonds The type of bond formed between the atoms depends upon the way in which the combining atoms attain octet structure in their valence shell.

37 TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS Ionic or electrovalent bond Covalent bond Coordinatecovalent tbond Metallic bond Hydrogen bond Van der Waals forces of attraction ti

38 IONIC BOND OR ELECTROVALENT BOND Ionic bond is formed by the transfer of one or more valence shell electrons from a metal atom to the valence shell of a nonmetal atom

39 The metal tl atom which h has lost electron(s) is converted into a positive ion (cation)and the nonmetal atom which gains electron(s) is converted into a negative ion (anion). The cations and anions thus formed attain stable noble gas electronic configuration. The h negative and positive ions are held by electrostatic force of attraction

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41 A metal gives electron(s) to a non-metal. The metal becomes positive and the non-metal becomes negative. They now attract each other H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Zr Ag I Xe Cs Ba W Pt Au Hg Pb Rn Fr U Pu

42 Formation of Ions from Metals Ionic compounds result when metals react with nonmetals Metals lose electrons to match the number of valence electrons of their nearest noble gas Group 1 metals ion 1+ Group 2 metals ion 2+ Group 13 metals ion 3+

43 Formation of Sodium Ion Sodium atom Sodium ion Na e Na + 2,8,1 2,8 ( = Ne) 11 p + 11 p + 11 e 10 e 0 1 +

44 Formation of Magnesium Ion Magnesium atom Magnesium ion Mg 2e Mg 2+ 2,8,2 2,8 (=Ne) 12 p + 12 p + 12 e 10 e 0 2 +

45 Some Typical Ions with Positive Charges (Cations) Group 1 Group 2 Group 13 H + Mg 2+ Al 3+ Li + Ca 2+ Na + Sr 2+ K + Ba 2+

46 Ions from Nonmetal Ions In ionic compounds, nonmetals in 15, 16, and 17 gain electrons from metals Nonmetal add electrons to achieve the octet arrangement Nonmetal ionic charge: 3, 2, or 1

47 Fluoride Ion unpaired electron octet 1 : F + e : F : 2,7 2,8 (= Ne) 9 p+ 9 p + 9 e 10 e 0 1 ionic charge

48 Formation of oxide ion 2 unpaired electrons octet 2 O + 2e : O : 2,6 2,8 (= Ne) 8 p+ 8 p + 8 e 10 e 0 2 ionic charge

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50 Ionic Bonds: One Big Greedy Thief Dog!

51 What is an ion or radical? Radical or an ion is an atom or group of atoms possessing electric charge Eg: E.g: Na +,Cl, SO 2 4

52 + Names and symbols of some ions Names and symbols of ions +

53 POLYATOMIC IONS Ions with -1 charge nitrate NO -1 3 sulfite SO -2 3 perbromate BrO -1 4 nitrite NO -1 2 chromate CrO -2 4 bromate BrO -1 3 hydroxide OH -1 dichromate Cr 2 O -2 7 bromite BrO -1 2 cyanide CN -1 oxalate C 2 O -2 4 hypobromite BrO -1 thiocyanate SCN -1 peroxide O -2 2 perchlorate ClO -1 4 acetate C 2 H 3 O -1 2 chlorate ClO -1 3 permanganate MnO -1 4 Ions with a -3 Charge chlorite ClO -1 2 bicarbonate HCO -1 3 phosphate PO -3 4 hypochlorite ClO -1 phosphite PO -3 3 periodate IO -1 Ions with a -2 Charge 4 arsenate AsO -3 iodate IO -1 carbonate CO iodite IO -1 phthalate C 8 H 4 O -2 4 Ions with +1 charge 2 hypoiodite IO -1 sulfate SO -2 4 ammonium ion NH +1 4

54 Formula of a compound The symbolic representation of a molecule is called a formula.

55 FORMULAE OF SIMPLE IONIC COMPOUNDS While writing the chemical formulae for compounds, we write the constituent symbols and their valencies as shown..then we must cross over the valencies of the combining atoms after removing common factors.

56 Formula of hydrogen chloride Symbols H Cl valency 1 1 Formula HCl

57 Formula of hydrogen sulphide Symbols H S valency 1 2 Formula H 2 S

58 Formula of magnesium chloride Symbols Mg Cl valency 2+ 1 Ignore the charges Formula Mg Cl 2

59 Formula of calcium oxide Symbols Ca O valency 2+ 2 Ignore the charges 1 1 Remove common fact Formula Ca O

60 Formula of ammonium sulphate Symbols NH 4 SO 4 valency 1+ 2 Ignore the charges Formula ( NH ) 4 SO 2 4

61 Properties of ionic compounds Physical y state: Ionic compounds consists of three dimensional solid aggregates of cations and anions which are arranged in a well defined geometrical pattern. Thus ionic compounds are solids at room temperature t

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63 Electrical conductivity: Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity i when they are in the solid state because the cations and anions are held tightly by electrostatic force of attraction. The ionic solids conduct electricity when they are dissolved d in water or in the molten state because ions are free to move in water solution or molten state.

64 Coil of wire battery + _ + compass _ Copper Chloride

65 + anode + anode _ cathode _ cathode Copper Chloride CuCl 2

66 Ionic compounds are quite hard and have high melting points

67 They are soluble in polar solvents like water but insoluble in nonpolar solvents like ether, alcohol, benzene etc

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