Unit 3: Cell Energy Guided Notes
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1 Enzymes Unit 3: Cell Energy Guided Notes 1 We get energy from the food we eat by breaking apart the chemical bonds where food is stored. energy is in the bonds, energy is the energy we use to do things. A reaction starts with a and ends with a For a reaction to occur there must be an input of energy called: To get energy easily, we need to speed up the reaction by using a molecule that lowers the energy of activation called an: are catalysts and all of our chemical reactions need them. They are usually The characteristics of catalysts are: Enzymes have a special spot in their 3-D structure called the: An enzymatic reaction occurs when: The enzyme bonds with the substrate It changes to fit around the substrate This is called induced fit And creates an enzyme-substrate complex The reaction is completed The product is released The enzyme returns to its original shape 1
2 2 Certain factors can affect enzymes and therefore reactions Temperature cold temperatures make reaction molecules move so the reaction goes Warm temperatures make reaction molecules move so the reaction goes But if the enzyme gets too hot it, which is when it loses its 3D shape and its active site is altered. This is why a can kill you. ph each enzyme has an optimal range and if it is too acidic or basic the enzyme will Enzyme Concentration the more enzyme in a reaction, the the reaction proceeds. The less enzyme in a reaction, the the reaction proceeds. Substrate Concentration is the opposite of enzyme concentration, so: Enzyme Inhibition Inhibitors stop or slow enzyme s functioning Inhibitors fit into active site and compete with the substrate eventually are released but slow enzyme s ability to function. When the body regulates itself this way it is called Feedback or Feedback Inhibition Inhibitors bond with enzyme and block or alter the active site usually permanent poison or toxin Some Enzymes need a cofactor or coenzyme to help them bond Coenzymes are usually organic Cofactors are usually inorganic Many metabolic disorders are due to a lack of enzymes. 2
3 Cell Energy and ATP 3 Chemical bonds are broken to get the energy that is stored in them. When a reaction releases energy it is called: When a reaction takes in more energy than it releases it is called: Electronegativity is the tendency of atoms to want to take electrons from other atoms. The higher the electronegativity, the more likely an atom will steal an electron. In a reaction, when an atom loses an electron it is called: In a reaction, when an atom gains an electron it is called: These reactions are collectively called: Usually chemical reactions are paired or grouped in a cell. A series of linked reactions is called a Often times the sum of these reactions is referred to as the cell s: When the cell regulates its chemical reactions, it maintains its internal equilibrium. This is called The energy needed for metabolic reactions is transported around the cell in the molecule ATP, or ATP is a, with Ribose as its sugar and as its nitrogenous base. It has phosphate functional groups. The energy is carried between the and phosphate groups. Once the energy in ATP is used, it becomes Draw the cycling reaction of ATP: 3
4 Photosynthesis 4 Photosynthesis uses the energy of to make and is the most important chemical process on earth. Organisms that perform photosynthesis are called: Light is made of particles called that move in waves. The peaks of the waves are measured in wavelengths and different wavelengths of light carry different amounts of Sunlight is light or white light. It is actually many wavelengths together, which can be broken up into different Each color has a different wavelength, and therefore a different amount of: The pigments in the plant capture most of this energy. The most common pigment is, which absorbs all colors except. There are actually 2 types, chlorophyll Chlorophyll a absorbs more red and is the primary pigment Chlorophyll b absorbs more blue and is an accessory pigment The absorb more of the blue range and reflect the oranges. The formula for photosynthesis is: + (+ ) + (+ ) The Eukaryotic organelle that performs photosynthesis is the: 4
5 5 Photosynthesis Light Dependent Reactions first part (p. 114 in textbook) The pigments are embedded into the membrane, which is the membrane of the chloroplast, folded into disks. The pigments are in clusters called. There are kinds. Light hits Photosystem II and is absorbed by the Hydrogen atoms in the pigments. The energy goes to the electrons, exciting them and splitting them from the rest of the atom. The Hydrogen atom is now one Hydrogen ion (a proton) (H + ) and one electron (e - ). The pigments become oxidized. The electrons are picked up by the Electron Acceptor, which has a higher electronegativity. The Electron Acceptor becomes reduced. The Electron Acceptor donates the electrons to the Electron Transport Chain protein enzymes embedded in the membrane. The electrons move down the ETC due to electronegativity and lose their energy to the molecules of the ETC it is used to make ATP. Light also hits Photosystem I, exciting those electrons, which split from the Hydrogen atom and leave the pigments. They get picked up by the Electron Acceptor. Next to this Electron Acceptor is an enzyme that brings together the electron, the rest of the Hydrogen Ion, and NADP +. NADP + is an electron carrier and takes the electron (and the H + ) and becomes NADPH. NADPH takes all the electrons from the pigments and will donate them to the next step of photosynthesis. To replace these electrons, water is split by Photosystem II in a process called photolysis. 5
6 Photosynthesis Light Independent Reactions second part (p. 116 in textbook) Also called the Calvin Cycle or Dark Reactions Need the products from the light reactions and Also need, which comes in through the stomata Takes place in the of the chloroplast 6 One cycle makes 1 G3P, 2 cycles make 2 G3P, which then bond to make: Follow the path of the atoms/molecules in the photosynthesis formula: + + Cellular Respiration Cellular Respiration is the process of breaking down food molecules (specifically ) in order to make The formula for cellular respiration is: + + (+ ) All organisms perform at least some steps of cellular respiration, even plants, this is why plants do, and why you can seal them in a terrarium. Organisms that perform cellular respiration and get their food from other organisms are called: 6
7 There are 3 parts to cellular respiration: Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport Chain 7 Glycolysis: splitting of sugar Occurs in the: do it It is considered an process because it doesn t need oxygen. The ATP that is made is not made in the mitochondria, so the process is different and is called Substrate Level Phosphorylation The product of glycolysis is: The net gain of ATP is: The electron carriers are: The electrons will be picked up and carried to the third stage (ETC) for energy harvesting 7
8 If cells are they live in an oxygen atmosphere and can continue on with the Citric Acid Cycle and Electron Transport Chain of respiration. Aerobic cells need oxygen and the to continue 8 Before the Citric Acid Cycle, Pyruvate must be modified into: This happens as the Pyruvate diffuses into the matrix of the mitochondria through a protein (facilitated diffusion!). Citric Acid Cycle (also called Kreb s Cycle, Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle/TCA) Takes place in the of the mitochondria and twice for each glucose. The products of the Citric Acid Cycle are: 8
9 9 The electrons are carried to the next stage (ETC) for energy harvesting Electron Transport Chain: occurs on the of the mitochondria Must have and from Glycolysis & the Citric Acid Cycle NADH and FADH2 lose their hydrogens. The hydrogen is split into hydrogen ions/the proton in the nucleus (H + ) and electrons (e - ). The electrons are picked up by the ETC. The electrons move down the ETC due to electronegativity and lose their energy to the molecules of the ETC. The molecules of the ETC are actually protein pumps that pump the hydrogen ions across the membrane. They hold them in the inner membrane space, keeping them from diffusing back across. This creates a potential energy gradient. At the end of the ETC is a protein called ATP Synthase. The hydrogen ions are eventually released through this protein and they generate energy, much like a dam. This energy is used to generate ATP. Oxygen waits at the end of the ETC to capture the electrons and hydrogen ions and make water. This process of making ATP is called Chemiosmosis or Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation. 1 NADH yields 3 ATP, 1 FADH2 yields 2 ATP, so 1 glucose makes ATP. The same thing happens on a smaller scale in the ETC of the LDR of photosynthesis. This is why some formulas add water as a product it is the water produced in the ETC. Some formulas even include the ATP produced. 9
10 Follow the path of the atoms/molecules in the cellular respiration formula: + + Fill in this summary graphic of Cellular Respiration Make sure you can compare and contrast Photosynthesis & Respiration and Chloroplasts & Mitochondria 10 We breathe in oxygen because it is necessary to make, which we would die without. At the end of the Electron Transport Chain, the oxygen we breathe in becomes. How does it leave your body? After the Citric Acid Cycle, all the carbon in the food that you eat has been turned into. How does it leave your body? Fermentation If an organism uses oxygen, it performs the electron transport chain and donates its hydrogen and becomes, returning to. If there is no oxygen, there will not be any NAD for Glycolysis and cellular respiration will stop. Fermentation returns to. This is necessary for Glycolysis, and for Anaerobic organisms. They must perform Glycolysis and Fermentation to survive. Some organisms do not live in oxygen environments; they may even die in the presence of oxygen. These organisms are called anaerobes. Some organisms can survive without oxygen, but prefer oxygen-rich environments. These organisms are called anaerobes. Fermentation begins at the end of Glycolysis so the substrate for fermentation is. Since it is performed by Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, it takes place in the 10
11 11 Bacteria and animal cells break Pyruvic Acid down into, in a process called Fermentation. In the reaction, NADH donates its and becomes NAD, which returns to assist the Glycolysis reactions. Some is also generated for energy. The lactic acid is used by some organisms to make. Humans do this fermentation when we are and run out of oxygen. It is a short-term fix until we get more oxygen. The lactic acid goes through Cellular Respiration and makes some. It can also build up in our and cause pain and cramping. Yeast & plants break Pyruvic Acid down into and in a process called Fermentation. The process is the same, NADH donates its and becomes NAD, which returns to assist the Glycolysis reactions. Some is also generated for energy. When yeast performs this fermentation, we can get bread. The makes the bread rise and the small amount of that is made is evaporated when the bread bakes. Other types of yeast make alcohol. So do certain plants such as grapes. Wine and champagne are made by alcoholic fermentation, but the plants would prefer to perform Aerobic Respiration. So they must be bottled and kept away from, or else the alcohol will go bad. 11
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