IAEA-TECDOC Strategy and Methodology for Radioactive Waste Characterization

Transcription

1 IAEA-TECDOC-1537 Strategy and Methodology for Radioactive Waste Characterization March 2007

2 IAEA-TECDOC-1537 Strategy and Methodology for Radioactive Waste Characterization March 2007

3 The originating Section of this publication in the IAEA was: Waste Technology Section International Atomic Energy Agency Wagramer Strasse 5 P.O. Box 100 A-1400 Vienna, Austria STRATEGY AND METHODOLOGY FOR RADIOACTIVE WASTE CHARACTERIZATION IAEA, VIENNA, 2007 IAEA-TECDOC-1537 ISBN ISSN IAEA, 2007 Printed by the IAEA in Austria March 2007

4 FOREWORD Radioactive waste management requires planned and systematic actions to provide confidence that the entire system, processes and final products will satisfy given requirements for quality. In order to ensure a quality end product, it is absolutely necessary to know and control the chemical and radiochemical parameters within the entire waste management life cycle, with special emphasis on waste conditioning, storage and disposal. Testing and analyses to demonstrate the radioactive content and the quality of final waste forms and waste packages are key components of this knowledge and control and are essential to accurate characterization of the waste. Reliable and effective methods for measuring radiological, physical, chemical, radiochemical and other characteristics have been established in many Member States, and the IAEA has several technical reports series on the subject. However, none of the existing IAEA publications has attempted to present a strategy and methodology for waste characterization which takes into account the origin of the waste, the different waste streams, the situation of the analytical laboratories, and the analytical technologies and techniques available. Neither has any attempt been made to offer any selection of standards that are used in the radioanalysis laboratories. To cover this gap, the IAEA initiated a task that was intended to give recommendations on harmonization in waste characterization. During drafting, the scope was appropriately expanded to provide a more comprehensive examination of strategies for radioactive waste characterization. The preparation of the report was accomplished through two consultant meetings in November 2002 and March 2004, along with one technical meeting held in March A final comprehensive review was performed August September 2006 to verify the information remained current and relevant prior to publication. In total, 19 experts from 13 Member States and the IAEA participated at different stages in the development process. The IAEA wishes to express its appreciation to all those individuals who took part in the preparation and publication of this report. Particular acknowledgement is due to P. Van Iseghem, Belgium, who chaired both consultants meetings and the technical meeting, as well as contributing great effort toward the completion and technical review. The officer at the IAEA responsible for initiating this report was R. Burcl of the Division of Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Waste Technology. J.L. González Gómez and J.J. Kelly of the same division finalized the report for publication.

5 EDITORIAL NOTE The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries. The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA.

6 CONTENTS SUMMARY INTRODUCTION Background Objective Scope Structure STRATEGY IN DEFINING THE CHARACTERIZATION PROGRAMME Background Types of waste Definitions of new waste and historical waste Waste subtypes Requirements Life cycle Planning and Waste Generation Treatment Conditioning Storage and disposal Development of characterization programme strategy Principle issues and development of waste acceptance criteria Elements of characterization programmes Quality assurance and quality control Organization and responsibility Responsibilities of the regulator/licensing authority Responsibilities of the generator of the waste Responsibilities of the treatment/conditioning/storage operator Responsibilities of the operator of the disposal facility (operating company, agency) Independent verification Cost and benefits of waste characterization Process knowledge Timing of waste characterization efforts IMPORTANT FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DEFINING A WASTE CHARACTERIZATION PLAN Scaling factor methodology Accuracy considerations Introduction Checking the homogeneity of a waste stream and sampling Selection of the key nuclides Measurement methods Reference materials, proficiency tests; associated traceability Consensus standards Calculation and model uncertainty Uncertainty propagation... 39

7 4. CHARACTERIZATION METHODOLOGY APPLICATION TO THE DIFFERENT WASTE CATEGORIES Introduction/applicability of scaling factor method Simple and stable waste streams Enrichment, conversion, fuel fabrication Nuclear power plant Spent fuel Complex and stable waste streams Nuclear power plant Reprocessing Waste form Simple and variable waste streams Examples of nuclear research laboratories Introduction Methodology for assigning a standard spectrum to a waste container General Complex and variable waste streams Decommissioning Sampling for establishing the decommissioning strategy Sampling strategy Historical waste Tanks with liquids Historical waste to be decontaminated before decommissioning Workshops to be decommissioned Historical waste sites (near surface, interim storage sites) REVIEW OF CHARACTERIZATION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES NonDestructive Examination (NDE) NonDestructive Assay - Summary of NDA for waste characterization General Gamma methods a summary Neutron methods a summary Destructive analysis Conditioning process and waste form qualification Introduction Simulant development, verification and qualification Scaled testing facilities Final waste form qualification Accelerated testing CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES ANNEX I: GAMMA SCANNING ANNEX II: LIST OF RADIONUCLIDES ANNEX III: RELEVANT STANDARDS ANNEX IV: BIBLIOGRAPHY

8 ANNEX V: EXAMPLE OF UNCERTAINTY CALCULATION FOR 90 SR DETERMINED BY LSC AFTER CHROMATOGRAPHIC SEPARATION PROCESS CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW

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10 SUMMARY Over the past several decades, there has been an increasing emphasis on the importance of producing a quality end product for all disposed radioactive waste. This is achievable only by obtaining a thorough and accurate assessment of the physical, chemical and radiological characteristics of the waste, a process which is referred to as waste characterization. This must be accomplished or verified at the point of generation, during waste conditioning, and upon disposal, with a clear demonstration that the waste meets the performance objectives established by the disposal acceptance criteria. Moreover, it must be accomplished in a systematic manner using proven methodologies, technologies and techniques with an overriding emphasis on quality assurance and quality control. The existing literature identifies and discusses reliable and effective methods for measuring radiological, physical, chemical, radiochemical and other characteristics of radioactive waste. An examination of the waste characterization strategies and practices in various countries indicates that many different or modified control methods are in use. Insufficient harmonization of testing methods and different interpretation of the obtained results, especially in the area of quality control of the final waste forms and waste packages, constrain application of unified safety rules and requirements. The IAEA has also produced several Technical Reports Series publications on the subject of waste characterization. This publication goes beyond the existing literature by providing a comprehensive examination of the methodologies and strategies for waste characterization which takes into account the origin of the waste, the different waste streams, the situation of the characterization laboratories, and the analytical technologies and techniques available. It provides waste generators, processors, laboratories, and other involved organizations with guidelines on establishing a radioactive waste characterization quality control strategy and policy. It also provides comprehensive information on the available quality control procedures used in the various steps of waste processing, their critical evaluation, and suggested optimum control systems/methods for enhancing the quality and accuracy of waste characterization. A review of the recent state of standardization activities is also included, as well as information for harmonization of testing procedures in various countries. This publication provides: A review of the requirements for and development of a waste characterization programme strategy, quality assurance programme, and quality control activities at the waste generator, processor, repository, and local or national laboratory levels. A review of characterization responsibilities applicable to waste generators, processors, and repository operators, as well as an examination of the cost and benefits of waste characterization. A review of the important factors to be considered in a waste characterization programme, including accuracy and uncertainties, scaling factors, and measurement methods. 1

11 A discussion of the applicability of various waste characterization methodologies to specific categories of waste streams (simple/stable waste streams, complex/variable waste streams, decommissioning waste streams, etc.). A discussion and a tabulated review of the most commonly used characterization methods and techniques. Over the past decade significant progress has been achieved in the development of waste characterization and control procedures and equipment as a direct response to ever-increasing requirements for quality and reliability of information on waste characteristics. Failure in control procedures at any step can have important, adverse consequences. In some cases, errors in waste characterization may result in producing waste packages which are not compliant with the waste acceptance criteria for disposal, thereby adversely impacting the repository. The information and guidance included in this publication corresponds to recent achievements and reflects the optimum approaches, thereby reducing the potential for error and enhancing the quality of the end product. 2

12 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. BACKGROUND Proper control of chemical and radiochemical parameters of radioactive waste within the entire waste management life cycle, and careful testing of the quality of final waste forms and waste packages, are principal components in any waste management strategy. Failure in control procedures at any step can cause important consequences, not only in follow-up steps, but, in some cases, may result in generating waste packages which are not compliant with the waste acceptance criteria for long term storage or disposal. In the past decade significant progress has been achieved in the development of waste characterization and control procedures and equipment as a direct response to ever-increasing requirements for quality and reliability of information on waste characteristics. A good reference describing the components of the waste characterization process has been published by the Agency [1]. Analyzing the situation in various countries (and even in particular organizations or laboratories dealing with radioactive waste within the country), it can be recognised that many different or modified, control methods are used. Insufficient harmonization of testing methods and different interpretation of obtained results, especially in the area of quality control of final waste forms and waste packages, constrain application of the unified safety rules and requirements. Although reference [1] describes the components of waste characterization, it does not describe the strategic considerations and guidance for establishing and maintaining a good waste characterization programme. This publication provides guidance to establish a reliable waste control strategy and to advise on the selection of verified chemical and radiochemical methods and procedures applicable in any particular step in the waste management life cycle OBJECTIVE The objectives are: Establish a process for characterising radioactive waste during its entire life cycle; Contribute to safety during the different stages of the radioactive waste life cycle: generation, processing, transport, storage and disposal; Demonstrate that the acceptance criteria (reception, processing, transport, storage, disposal) are met based on the performance assessment for the disposal concept; and Provide technical input to: Identify the necessary and sufficient (adequate and cost effective) characterization requirements; Identify the accuracy requirements (of particular interest to the regulator); Categorise the waste, and identify the associated regulatory requirements (needs, selection processing); Identify the quality assurance needs and related actions; Contribute to the selection of the optimum waste forms (in view of disposal); and Demonstrate that the candidate waste forms meet the specifications. 3

13 The primary purpose of this publication is to provide waste control laboratories, waste generators, waste conditioners, and other involved organizations with guidelines on establishing radioactive waste characterization quality control strategy, policy and methodology. Another purpose is to offer comprehensive information on available quality control procedures used in the various steps of waste processing, their critical evaluation, and suggested optimum control systems/methods. These correspond to recent achievements and reflect in the best way the requirements of each particular user. A review of the recent state of standardization activities is also included, as well as information for harmonization of testing procedures in various countries SCOPE During the drafting process, available information and experiences from various waste generators, waste processing organizations, and waste control laboratories were collected and reviewed by an international team of experts who evaluated advantages and disadvantages and proposed potential ways to increase the harmonization of control procedures. The strategy of radioactive waste control during its entire life-cycle and the requirements for characterization of waste forms and waste packages for long term storage and disposal are other subjects covered in the report. The status of normative documentation and standardization activities are also discussed. The publication consists of two principal themes: the first dealing with waste characterization and control strategy, and the second providing a description and evaluation of selected control procedures and methods for all basic steps of the radioactive waste life cycle. The following issues are covered: Requirements (general) for raw waste characterization, quality control of waste processing technologies, and quality control of conditioned waste (for storage and disposal); Strategy of waste control (for all steps mentioned above); Selected control procedures, their evaluation, and proposal of the most convenient methods for characterization of various kinds of raw waste; Selected control procedures, their evaluation, and proposal of the most convenient methods for monitoring and control of waste processing technologies; Selected control procedures, their evaluation, and proposal of the most convenient methods for destructive and non-destructive control of waste forms and waste packages; List of relevant norms and standards; Status of unification of control methods and standardization activities; and Potential options and recommendations for further harmonization of control procedures STRUCTURE The publication is composed of four technical sections and a large set of annexes. Section 2 describes how a characterization programme should be defined. It discusses the elements, organisation and responsibilities evaluating the costs and benefits of such a programme. Scaling factors and accuracy of measurements and its consequences are the core of Section 3. With regard to the accuracy of the measurements, a large part of Section 3 is devoted to a possible interlaboratory comparison and to the calculations of the uncertainties. 4

14 In Section 4, several methodologies are discussed, depending on the characteristics and origin of different wastes streams. It includes simple, complex, stable and variable streams, and the methodologies for characterization of decommissioning and historic wastes. Section 5 introduces destructive and non-destructive assays and some of the equipment to be used. For different methods, gamma spectroscopy, neutron assay, or analytical methods, an overview is provided of the most important characteristics and usefulness of specific assays. Finally, the annexes include descriptive parts, such as gamma scanning, relevant reports and standards, and an example calculation of uncertainties when dealing with samples assumed to be representative. 2. STRATEGY IN DEFINING THE CHARACTERIZATION PROGRAMME 2.1. BACKGROUND Characterization actions are currently being performed during various stages of the radioactive waste life cycle: during generation (including waste retrieval activities), processing (treatment, conditioning), and storage/disposal. The type and extent of the characterization efforts depend on many factors, e.g.: the type of waste or waste form; the disposal concept; the regulatory regime; the amount of process knowledge that is available; the kind of characteristics to be measured. It is consequently impossible to define or recommend a single characterization procedure for even similar waste forms or packages. In order to elaborate a strategy for the characterization actions in any given case, the following should be critically understood and assessed: the waste acceptance criteria (and the rationale behind it); and the safety assessment for the disposal concept (e.g. assumptions made, information needed). It is of importance that waste characterization is considered as part of the larger waste management strategy, and interactions should be occurring among the various working groups involved. One of the outputs of this is that the minimum accuracy required and detection limits of the characterization efforts may be better identified. Defining the organisational scheme into which the characterization efforts fit will take into account the relationships between the various bodies involved: those responsible for waste management, the disposal organisation, the regulator, the various waste producers and operators, and the independent laboratory. A basic quality principle relates to the independence of certain characterization facilities and activities: 5

15 The generator of the radioactive waste and the operators (treatment and conditioning, storage and disposal) perform characterization programmes for various reasons. These activities need to relate with and report to the waste management staff. The independent laboratory must respond and report to the regulator. The application of an additional quality control (independent laboratory) is a basis of quality assurance and will strongly contribute to the public confidence in the back-end of the nuclear fuel cycle. This additional quality control needs to be carefully balanced to provide the maximum added value to the other characterization programmes, assuming the financial impacts remain reasonable TYPES OF WASTE Definitions of new waste and historical waste New waste For the purposes of this publication, new wastes are those that are generated with a traceable characterization programme in place. They may actually have been generated some time ago, appropriately treated (not yet conditioned), and placed in interim storage; however, if the characterization was robust, traceable, necessary and sufficient, these types of wastes may be considered under the heading of new wastes for the purposes of this discussion. The primary distinction for this type of waste is that the history is known, the characterization is robust, and the process knowledge is sufficiently preserved through appropriate managerial control and custody of the wastes. Historical waste In contrast to the above definition of new wastes, for the purposes of this discussion historical wastes are those that are generated without a complete traceable characterization programme or quality management system in place. These wastes may, in fact, be generated today. For example, the continued collection and placement in storage of raw wastes without robust characterization and segregation, and which is pending retrieval and full characterization/treatment, etc. at some time in the future, is actually continued generation of historical wastes. Key characteristics of historical wastes are: may be conditioned, partially treated, or raw; poor or no information/traceability; cannot conclusively identify originating process/location; and, waste streams may be mixed. The primary identifiers of historical wastes are: incomplete history; incomplete or improper characterization/treatment; and quality system does not cover the whole life cycle at the time of generation or does not meet the modern standards for the whole life cycle. 6

16 Waste subtypes Waste streams from both new and historical waste types may conveniently fall into one of four subtypes, which are developed as a combination of two components depending upon the consistency and complexity of the waste properties (physical, radiological, chemical, etc.). The first component is due to the complexity of developing the nuclide vector or collection of properties, and the second component is due to the variability of vectors. The first component is described as either simple or complex. This refers to the level of difficulty (and corresponding expense) to develop the list of properties. For example, simple waste streams do not require much effort or expense to develop the vector. More complex streams will require a great deal of expensive analysis to develop the fingerprint. The variability component refers to whether the properties remain relatively constant over time. For example, streams where the waste always comes from a consistent process will be stable, and wastes coming from varying or multiple processes are likely to be variable. Stable streams will tend to have a lower uncertainty in the vector. Variable streams will tend to be difficult to manage, as the uncertainty in the vector will vary and could be quite large. If the degree of variation is unacceptable, then it may be necessary (if possible) to revisit the stream and partition it into more stable streams. The above two components can be further described as four subtypes, which are further described in the following paragraphs and summarised in Table I. TABLE I. CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE STREAMS BY EASE OF MEASUREMENT AND SAMPLING ABILITY Traceable Waste Stream: Simple & Stable Complex & Stable Simple & Variable Complex & Variable Nuclear Power Plant Institutional Nuclear Research Lab Reprocessing Enrichment, Conversion, Fuel Fabrication Decommissioning * * * * Spent Sealed Source Spent Fuel Final Waste Form Non-Traceable Waste Stream: Historical ** ** ** ** * facility dependent. ** may or may not include this subtype. Simple & Stable These waste streams are the ideal case from a characterization point of view. It is often desirable when considering new wastes to design the process, or characterization programme to maximise the waste streams of this type, as opposed to the other, more complex cases. Waste streams of this type follow consistent patterns of properties that do not vary considerably and are highly predictable. In addition to being uniform, there is not a broad 7

17 range of complex individual properties requiring consideration (e.g. complex chemical mixes, complicated radionuclide vector, etc.). As the properties do not vary, representative sampling is relatively easy, and simple measurement methods that may only capture one key property, coupled with process knowledge confirming that other properties are not varying (i.e., quality control regimes), may be sufficient to characterise the stream. For example, for wastes that contain a single gamma emitting nuclide, dose rate or gross gamma measurements are usually sufficient to characterise the radioactive properties. Examples of this subtype include the following: Spent sources Constituents will be well known, and detailed documentation will be available. Sampling will not be necessary, and direct quantification will likely be possible by very simple means. Enrichment, conversion and fuel fabrication The radioactive species will only be the fissile material. The nuclide vector will be known, as this is a highly controlled part of the process. The significant process control effort required for manufacture will be a valuable source of waste characterization information. As the process is highly controlled, the streams will be stable for each particular batch. (Note: It is recommended to clean out process lines between batches to preserve the stability of the waste streams.) Institutional and radio-pharmaceutical wastes Similar to fuel manufacture, these processes tend to be highly controlled, with very few species. Process control data will be highly valuable to characterise wastes. Wastes will be stable within batches. Spent fuel Spent fuel will not change in composition until it is reprocessed. Although nuclide ratios will change due to decay, this is a very well understood process and can be predicted very accurately. Burn-up calculations may possibly generate much of the data required to determine the radioactivity characterization. Complex & stable Some waste streams are necessarily complex as they result from complicated chemical or nuclear processes. Many properties require consideration, but if these streams are predictable (although complex), the property distributions do not vary significantly; therefore they may be considered as being of this subtype. This is the second most desirable situation for new wastes. The complex nature of the wastes means that more complex measurement approaches may be required. For example, wastes with a complex radionuclide vector may require gamma spectroscopy measurements to characterise the radioactive properties. However, as the properties are broadly non-varying, representative sampling is relatively easy. Examples of this subtype include the following: 8

18 Nuclear power plant (NPP) operational wastes The majority of NPP operational wastes will be highly system-correlated for example, systems associated with heat transfer will have mixed fission and activation products, while reactor components will have mainly activation products. The distributions will be highly chemistry-correlated. Other than where chemical processes are happening on the wastes, the streams will be relatively stable. Although these streams will have relatively complex nuclide vectors, the streams should be quite strongly process system/geographically-correlated and should be easy to segregate into stable streams. For example, outage wastes should be kept segregated from general operational wastes, from laboratory wastes, from heat transport/fuelling maintenance wastes, etc. Examples are protective clothing, filters, resins, decontamination wastes, etc. Reprocessing Reprocessing involves complex chemical processes on spent fuel. The chemistry and dissolution processes will generate complex products, and therefore complex vector wastes. However, these are highly controlled processes; so batch to batch, the product and associated wastes will be very stable and will relate directly back to the characteristics of the particular fuel being reprocessed. There will be multiple streams, as parts of the process associated with fissile material recovery will be very high in alpha activity, and processes involved with the high level liquid waste will contain high concentrations of fission products and activation products. Waste form After conditioning, the waste form will be complex. However the purpose of conditioning is to stabilise the wastes for long term disposal, so the properties at this point in time will be stable. Simple & variable (e.g. laboratory) Some wastes may not possess a wide degree of complex properties, but the properties that they do possess are highly variable. For these wastes, measurements are performed relatively easily due to the normally simple distribution of properties. However, if the properties vary considerably, representative sampling becomes quite difficult, as it is difficult to defend an assumption that a single sample result is representative of the mean of the property for the waste population. Many more measurements are required; sometimes for each waste item. Operational laboratory wastes often fall into this waste subtype. (Quality checking laboratories will more appropriately fall under Simple & Stable subtype.) As laboratories perform many differing analyses, all with different reagents and source materials, the properties of the wastes will be quite variable. However, as each analysis will be highly controlled, the wastes from each individual operation will be relatively simple. 9

19 Complex & variable The least desirable situation is one for which the wastes possess a complex mix of properties, some or all of which display a large degree of variation. For this situation, representative sampling is very difficult, and measurement methods will be necessarily complex. It is not difficult to recognise that this situation usually leads to the most costly characterization programmes. Examples of this subtype of waste include decommissioning wastes and legacy stored wastes where history has been lost and streams have been mixed. In each of these cases, a large degree of costly complex sampling and analysis will be required as a foundation to the characterization programme. It should be noted that decommissioning wastes and historical wastes are unusual cases that, depending on the circumstances, could fall under any one of the four sub-categories. As such, they are given separate treatment in Section REQUIREMENTS Many of the objectives of waste characterization are described in reference [2]. If the waste package is to be accepted for disposal, performance in its final form needs to be specified and assured. LILW and HLW must be characterized at various stages in predisposal management to obtain information on its properties. This information can be used in controlling the quality of the products, verifying the processes and facilitating the subsequent steps for safely processing and disposing of the waste [3 4]. To ensure that the waste package is in an acceptable form for disposal, a programme should be established to develop a process for conditioning that is approved by the regulatory body. Features adopted for waste characterization and process control should ensure that the properties of waste packages will be maintained; otherwise the long term safety demonstration of the proposed disposal facility may not be conclusive. It is important to define what characterization details are required. With too little data, the most appropriately engineered disposal may not be selected. Too much data (and the associated data collection costs) result in a waste of resources. Characterization must be carried out correctly. If inaccurate data is obtained, then the resulting packages may be found to be non-compliant late in the life cycle, which will be expensive to correct. If errors go undetected, the result may be unsafe disposal with potentially serious long term effects on the environment. A Quality Assurance programme should be implemented [4] as well as a system of records for keeping all the waste data [5 6]. Waste characterization requirements are typically developed from disposal performance assessment in addition to waste acceptance criteria (WAC), process control and quality assurance requirements, transportation requirements, and worker safety requirements. A matrix showing where each WAC originates can greatly assist with understanding the philosophy behind the overall characterization programme and put the elements into context LIFE CYCLE Radioactive wastes typically undergo the following stages: Planning (development of characterization process) Waste generation or retrieval 10

20 Treatment Conditioning Interim storage Disposal (including closure and post-closure of disposal facility Activities that are performed in various stages of the life cycle may have significant effects on the cost and efficiency of the overall characterization programme. Characterization is generally much easier and cheaper in the earlier stages of the life cycle. For example, waste properties that could easily be measured at the raw waste state may be difficult or impossible to measure after some treatment stages, certainly after conditioning has been undertaken. If wastes streams are appropriately segregated and controlled early in the life cycle, then a greater proportion of the wastes may fall into the simple & stable waste type. Alternatively, if raw waste streams are mixed and if valuable history is lost, more of the waste will fall into the complex & variable type, requiring a characterization programme that is more intensive and costly Planning and waste generation Characterization is the assessment of key parameters, some of which include the following: waste volume/quantity activity nuclide vector chemical properties physical/mechanical properties biological properties originating process/location The planning stage identifies the characterization requirements for the remaining life cycle phases. Planning for waste characterization should take place in advance of waste generation to ensure that waste collection, segregation, containerization, temporary storage, etc. are all accomplished in a controlled manner which is best supports the waste characterization plan. In general, the better the planning, the more cost effective and successful the characterization programme. Planning for new waste generation For new wastes, there is the opportunity to look at the originating process and influence it to avoid potential pitfalls. Analysis of waste streams followed by development of suitable segregation techniques usually result in wastes that are easier to characterize and manage. Robust institutional control of the wastes during later stages can be established and built into the system to preserve process knowledge. As a result, complex analysis or measurements beyond the waste generation phase may not be required other than the minimum required for conditioning process control or demonstration of quality assurance (e.g. independent verification). Requirements for characterization for each waste stream during each phase of the life cycle will be identified, and appropriate analysis of the engineering processes will be undertaken to design the optimum characterization programme. 11

21 Planning for historic wastes Considering that historic wastes have already been generated, there is little or no opportunity to influence the generation process. The first stage of planning will concentrate on identifying what is already known about the wastes and what characterization is required for further phases. This process is called scoping. Piecing together the strongest possible process knowledge information from historical sources (records, reports, interviews with past employees, etc.) may help reduce the amount of expensive sampling and analysis required to complete the picture. Scoping studies will identify the boundaries between properties that result in logical waste streams being identified. The characterization programme will then be developed around gaps in knowledge until all the waste streams have a sufficiently robust characterization Treatment Some wastes may require treatment for safety, handling or stability for interim storage reasons. For new wastes, there is an opportunity to influence the process design so that wastes generated will require little or no treatment. If treatment is required, it is usually easier to obtain most of the characterization while the waste is in raw form, and characterization requirements may be directed toward treatment process control. For historic wastes, many situations are possible. Wastes may have already undergone some degree of treatment with little or no pre-characterization. In such a case, further characterization will be required both before and during treatment to obtain a sufficient degree of detailed information. Waste streams may have been inadvertently combined, leading to a much larger volume of material that must be checked for certain properties. Previously treated wastes need to be examined to determine the compatibility of the prior treatment process with the waste acceptance criteria for the conditioning and disposal phases Conditioning By the time this phase occurs, sufficient characterization should have been accomplished to comply with the WAC for conditioning and disposal, and the waste will likely be in an acceptable form. During this phase, characterization activities are primarily directed toward quality control, although a minimum amount of independent quality checking may also be required. Cursory checks will be directed toward confirming the identity of the incoming wastes. Process knowledge and characterization done in previous steps, combined with knowledge of what impact the conditioning process has had on the waste characteristics, will form the basis for overall characterization of the waste and waste forms. The growing set of documentation for each waste package preserves the history and characterization throughout the remainder of the waste life cycle. Post-conditioning checks will confirm compliance with requirements for transport (e.g. surface contamination levels, dose rate, etc.) Storage and disposal At this stage, there should no longer be any requirement to sample or analyze waste forms, except to verify randomly that waste delivered to the facility complies with the waste acceptance criteria. Suitable management control throughout the preceding phases, coupled with robust quality assurance and quality control, will make re-analysis unnecessary. Any destructive analysis at this stage would pose considerable technical difficulties, be unlikely to 12

22 give a complete picture, and would be very expensive. All that should be required during this phase is compiling basic information for the protection of the workers handling the wastes (e.g. dose rate, surface contamination levels) DEVELOPMENT OF CHARACTERIZATION PROGRAMME STRATEGY In order to establish a characterization programme, it is necessary to determine all of the requirements. The easiest case occurs in a jurisdiction where each phase of the life cycle is in operation and the regulatory regime is well developed. In other words, the industry local nuclear is mature and final waste disposal is actually occurring. Given that the disposal concept will influence the conditioning and storage phases, it is best to start from the requirements (or WAC) [11] for disposal and work back from there. If no mature disposal concept has been established, one has to work forward and try to presuppose what the disposal future requirements will be. This situation inherently contains much more risk, given that overlooking parameters may have severe monetary consequences. It will also be difficult to predict what level of analysis will be required to satisfy the regulator. Developing a programme for this second and more difficult case will require a measured approach. On one hand, it may seem advantageous to defer characterization activities until the requirements are more clearly known. However, the risk of having to gain necessary information late in the life cycle and incurring high costs to do so could be great. Extensive testing may seem desirable to avoid this risk, but it would seem unnecessarily costly if expensive tests are performed and shown later to be unnecessary. Archiving of samples is a good way to help reduce this risk, considering that the samples will be available for future testing. However, this is also very complicated because choosing which samples would be valuable in the future is difficult to predict. Consideration must also be given to preserving the long term stability of the samples as well as managing and storing the samples. A practical place to start is with consulting the stakeholders involved, especially the regulators, and studying the approaches taken in jurisdictions that are more mature. At an absolute minimum, the requirements of packaging and interim storage must be considered if there is not yet a disposal concept, and it would be wise to consider the possibility of interim storage being necessary for a very long time. It would be better to develop a conditioning-forstorage strategy that is consistent with the principles for disposal and determine the characterization requirements for the generation, packaging, transport, treatment and conditioning processes Principle issues and development of waste acceptance criteria As previously stated, the characterization programme must necessarily address the requirements for all life cycle phases. This may involve requirements from several different waste acceptance criteria publications and additional regulatory or political requirements. It is important to note that this picture will have to be generated independently for all waste types, and not all wastes will be destined for the same processes and disposal concept. 13

23 The waste acceptance criteria are likely to contain a mix of requirements, some of which pertain to key characterization parameters. Others may be related to documentation requirements, contractual constraints, limitations of the waste receivers processes or equipment (e.g. the waste receiver may have limitations on crane size and cannot accept packages over a certain weight). Whoever is responsible for developing the characterization strategy, it is important to study and interpret any relevant WAC to understand fully the reasons behind each requirement. This will highlight which requirements may be negotiable or may require further explanation and allows for optimal tailoring of the characterization process. If the waste management regime is not fully mature and detailed WAC do not exist for the entire waste life cycle, it may be necessary to presuppose what these requirements are likely to be as the waste management programme evolves. In order to do so, it is helpful to review more mature programmes and analyze in detail the potential requirements for each phase of the life cycle. Of course, all of this information will have to be adapted to the organizational, political, economic and regulatory constraints of the local jurisdiction. Elements of WAC and where they originate The waste acceptance criteria will define the requirements that the waste package must meet in view of transport, interim storage and final disposal. The requirements will be based on the following: limitations of conditioning processes or facilities conditioning process control parameters worker safety at all phases legal requirements transportation limits interim storage requirements integrated performance assessments disposal facility performance assessments overall quality assurance requirements (independence, testing, etc.) Elements of characterization programmes Waste characterization involves a collection of data that pertains to specific waste properties as well as processing parameters and quality assurance. Key elements include the following: Radioactivity properties Chemical properties Physical properties Mechanical properties Thermal properties Biological properties The following parameters relate to individual waste packages and must be known to ensure that each individual package is managed correctly: Waste stream identification 14

24 Description of originating process Date and location of waste collection Names of organizations and persons involved at each step References to exact procedures used Traceability of reference materials to consensus standards Training and qualifications of persons involved Dates and times of analysis Acceptance criteria for quality control tests Results of quality control tests Required frequency of quality control tests This information serves three principal purposes. The first is to provide additional backup information to describe the wastes. The second purpose is to support quality control and ensure that the waste processes (e.g. conditioning, packaging) are kept within tolerance limits to ensure compliance with relevant WAC. The third purpose is for quality assurance. This data confirms that everything continues to be carried out correctly and provides confidence to the stakeholders. Whenever a non-conformance is detected, it is crucial to determine where the breakdown occurred so that the problem may be corrected Quality assurance and quality control A quality assurance programme for predisposal management must be established and implemented by the operator of the facility concerned in accordance with the requirements and recommendations for quality assurance provided in Reference [7]. Non-conformities in waste packages should be prevented, particularly for those activities that could lead to an irreversible non-conformance if not performed properly. A quality assurance programme, including implementing procedures, should involve the following activities: (a) Characterization of the waste; (b) Development of the specifications for waste packages ; (c) Approval of the conditioning process for the waste; (d) Confirmation of the characteristics for waste packages; and (e) Review of quality control records. Quality records should be established and maintained for each waste package. These records should be reviewed against the specifications to determine the acceptability of the waste package. Records generated at all predisposal stages may be important for demonstrating that the waste package complies with the specifications. Such records should ensure that characteristics of the waste from its collection through to its processing and storage are known, documented and retrievable [5, 6, 13] ORGANIZATION AND RESPONSIBILITY Figure 2.1 shows the responsibilities of various players involved in a waste characterization programme [3, 4]. The regulator oversees every step in the waste characterization programme. The producer of raw waste has to conduct characterization of the waste he produces. The treatment 15

25 operator must conduct quality control during the process. Finally, the disposal operator must see that the final waste package conforms to criteria for disposal. Taking into account the particular activities involved in each step and in the whole life cycle can help fulfil all requirements in a more effective way. Each body has to obtain regulatory agreement/approval as well as agreement from the next body (operator or authority) to transfer the waste to its next life cycle phase. It is crucial that information about the waste (including its characterization results) from the generator to disposal operator is traceable and shared between bodies Responsibilities of the regulator/licensing authority The regulator (licensing authority) has related responsibilities which begin prior to operation of a waste characterization facility and continue through final closure. These include: Review of the Safety Analysis Report (SAR) and granting of the license. Issuing license requirements, including waste acceptance criteria (or at least activity limits) Quality audit Independent verification of characterization accuracy and reliability Radiological safety inspections Technical inspections License amendments and extensions, including review of SAR revisions Characterization facility (e.g. laboratory) decommissioning and license termination Responsibilities of the generator of the waste The waste generator has ultimate responsibility for characterizing the wastes so that the Waste Acceptance Criteria can be met throughout the life cycle. In principle, the generator should be prepared to cover all costs of waste management including waste characterization. The generator can design the whole life cycle, identify each waste transfer between various bodies, and collect the criteria and requirements that must be fulfilled when waste goes through each phase. In most cases, effective characterization can be done on the raw waste. To be able to use early life cycle waste characterization results in subsequent phases, the generator should set up an extensive quality control system with special attention given to preserving obtained data and its proper management in subsequent waste management steps. Ideally, all players in this process will manage data in an equally effective and secure manner. However, if the subsequent operator cannot handle his publication management system in a way that covers all needs during the waste management life cycle, it is ultimately the waste generator s duty to collect and properly handle data until it is accepted by the disposal operating company. The generator of the waste is responsible for the quality control of the waste. The quality control system shall include training, method development, qualification and documentation. Preserving the characterization data for traceability and retrievability is another important responsibility for the generator. 16