INFORMATION ABOUT THE COURSE

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1 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 1 INFORMATION ABOUT THE COURSE KOM2751 Analog Electronics

2 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 2 Information about the course Course Information Instructor: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek A-216 Office Hours: Monday 9:00-16:00 Gr2 Class Hours: Tuesday13:00-15:50 for Gr2, Class Location: A-153 for Gr2 Course Materials: mercimek@yildiz.edu.tr programming.kom@gmail.com Not a Yarbis website!

3 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 3 Information about the course Textbook and course Materials Main Text Book: Electronic devices and circuit theory, Robert L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, 11 th ed, Elektronik Analiz ve Tasarım - Prof. Dr. Halit Pastacı, 1997 Elektronik Problemler ve Deneyler Prof.Dr. Halit Pastacı, 2005 The VLSI Handbook, Wai-Kai Chen, 2000

4 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 4 Information about the course Grading Assignments: 15% Exams: 85% Course Objectives Introducing fundamental electronic circuit components and using these components in analysis, design and simulation of the analog circuits. Assignments There will be 3-4 individual programming assignments and these will be listed on the schedule page. Due dates will be specified and the students should submit their material on time. Submissions should be the outcome of each student s own endeavors. Collaborative study is encouraged, any document you hand in must be your own. Academic Honesty Any misconduct in this course is considered a serious offense and strong penalties will be the results of such behaviors. It is cheating to copy others assignment.

5 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 5 Information about the course Week Subjects Preparation, 1 Introduction, Semiconductors and diodes Textbook (Ch. 1) 2 Semiconductors and diodes Textbook (Ch. 2) 3 Diode applications Textbook (Ch. 2) 4 Bipolar junction transistors Textbook (Ch. 3) 5 DC analysis of BJTs Textbook (Ch. 4) 6 BJT Applications; Current mirrors, Current source circuits, Switching of transistors Textbook (Ch. 4) 7 AC analysis of BJTs; Cascaded systems Textbook (Ch. 5) 8 Midterm I 9 AC analysis of BJT; Cascaded systems; Amplifiers Textbook (Ch. 5) 10 DC analysis of JFETs and MOSFETs Textbook (Ch. 6,7) 11 AC analysis of JFETs and MOSFETs; Amplifiers Textbook (Ch. 8) 12 BJT and JFET Frequency response Textbook (Ch. 9) 13 BJT and JFET Frequency response Textbook (Ch. 9) 14 Operational Amplifiers Textbook (Ch. 10,11) 15 Final exam This plan may subject to modifications. Any changes will be announced in class and posted on the instructor s website.

6 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 6 Information about the course The most important policy you should follow up; Cell-phone use is prohibited during the class!!

7 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 7 1 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

8 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept Introduction As in many areas of technology fundamental principles change a little over time Systems are incredibly smaller speed of operation is remarkable Majority of all devices in use were invented decades ago and design techniques as far back as the 1930 s are still in use. Rather than development of new elements and fundamentally new designs a rise in construction techniques are seen primarily. Major changes are in Understanding how these devices work and their full range capabilities Improved methods to teach the fundamentals in these devices. Today s integrated circuit networks are thousands of times smaller than first single element (IC developed at Texas Instruments in 1958)

9 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 9 Miniaturization: limited by such factors Quality of semiconductor material The network design techniques Limits of manufacturing and processing equipment Innovations in the semiconductor industry

10 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 1.2 Semiconductor Materials The construction of every solid state electronic device or integrated circuit begins with a semiconductor material. Semiconductors are special elements having conductivity between that of a good conductor and that of an insulator. a) ngle crystal - Semiconductors: Ge - Germanium - licon (not silicone) Repetitive single crystal structures b) Compound Semiconductors GaAs - Gallium Arsenide CdS - Cadmium Sulfide GaN Gallium Nitride Constructed of two or more Semiconductor materials The 3 Semiconductors used most frequently in the construnction of electronics devices are Ge,, GaAs.

11 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 11 Conductor vs Insulator In a conductor, electric current can flow freely, in an insulator it cannot. Metals such as copper typify conductors, "Conductor" implies that the outer electrons of the atoms are loosely bound and free to move through the material. In copper, the valence electrons are essentially free and strongly repel each other. mply stated, most metals are good electrical conductors, most nonmetals are not. Metals are also generally good heat conductors while nonmetals are not. Most solid materials are classified as insulators because they offer very large resistance to the flow of electric current. Metals are classified as conductors because their outer electrons are not tightly bound, but in most materials even the outermost electrons are so tightly bound that there is essentially zero electron flow through them with ordinary voltages. This is compared to the resistivity of copper: Resistivity (ohm m) Glass Mica 9 x Quartz (fused) 5 x Resistivity (ohm m) Copper 1.7 x 10-8 resistance of a wire

12 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 12 Diodes : discovery in 1939 Transistors: discovery in 1947 Ge was used first (High level of purity, easy to find, easy to refine, and available in large quantities) It is temperature sensitive semiconductor. It has low manufacturing cost high availability. At that time another material showed better sensitivity at different temperatures 2 nd most abundant material on earth crust 28%. most frequently used semicinductor for the full range ofelectronic devices. When the speed was a concern (computers, communication systems) a semiconductor capable of the new needs had to be found (1970). GaAs 5 times the speed of operation of More expensive, not having efficient design strategies/ However in the time the demand for speed resulted in more research on GaAs. Thus GaAs used consistently as the based material for VLSI (very large scale integrated) circuit design. More than 80% of its applications are in optoelectronics with the development of light-emitting diodes, solar cells, and other photodetector devices.

13 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept Covalent Bonding Intrinsic Materials Ge,, GaAs. as the semiconductors can be appreciated fully after the inquiry of their atomic structures and how the atoms are bound together to form a crystalline structure. Atom (3 basic particles) Electrons Protons Neutrons In the lattice structure neutrons and protons form nucleus. Electrons are at fixed orbits around the nucleus.

14 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 14 Bohr Models Valence electrons 4 tetra-valent Ge 4 tetra-valent Ga 3 tri-valent As 5 penta-valent Ge 32 The potential required to remove any of valence electrons from atomic structure is significantly lower than that required for any another electron in the structure Ga As 33

15 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 15 Periodic Table

16 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 16 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 10 4p 6 4s 2 3d 10 4p 6 5s 2 4d 10 5p 6 6s 2 4f 14 5d 10 6p 6 He 2 Ne 10 Ar 18 Kr 36 Xe 54 Ra 54 K 19 : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 1 1A 0 8 : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 4 6A Ti 22 : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 2 4B 3A 4A 5A B 5 C 6 N 7 Al 13 Aluminum Ga 31 Gallium licon Ge 32 Germanium P 15 Phosphorus As 33 Arsenic

17 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 17 There are 4 valence electrons of each atom With covalent bonds crystal structure is strengthened by sharing valence electrons. Although the covalent bond results in stronger bonds between electrons and their parent atom it is still possible for valence electrons to absorb sufficient kinetic energy from external natural causes to break the covalent bond. When covalent bonds are broken then the electrons are separated from the fixed lattice structure and becomes more sensitive electric fields established by voltage sources. 1 electron is shared In one covalent bond

18 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 18 The external causes may include effects such as thermal energy of the medium. There are approximately 1.5 x free carriers at room temperature in 1 cm 3 of intrinsic silicon material. Intrinsic materials : are the semiconductors that has been carefully refined. In an intrinsic material the impurity level can be 1 in 10 billion (1 different atom in 10 billion licon atom). The free electrons due to external causes are referred as intrinsic carriers Semiconductor Intrinsic carriers per cm 3 GaAs 1.7 x x Ge 1.5 x 10 13

19 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 19 The number of free carriers is important one other characteristic of the material is more important. Relative mobility μ n : ability of free carriers to move throughout the material. Semiconductor Mobility factor μ n : cm 2 /Vs 1500 Ge 3900 v = μ E cm/s=cm 2 /Vs x V/cm velocity = mobility x Electric field GaAs 8500 Ge has more than twice that of free carriers of atom. Response times of electronics devices consist of using GaAs can be up to 6 times those of devices with. This results continued use of Ge in high speed radio frequency applications.

20 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 20 The ability to change characteristics of a material through addition of impurity is called doping. A Semiconductor doped to such levels may even act like a conductor Ge,, GaAs readily and easily accept doping Ex: 1 impurity atom in 10 9 base atoms: poor conductor If changed to 1 impurity atom in 10 6 : good conductor Reaction to the application of heat For conductors the resistance increases with the increase in heat. The number of the carriers in a conductor do not increase significantly with temperature. A vibration pattern makes it increasingly difficult for a sustained flow of carriers. Material act like this have a positive temperature coefficient. Semiconductors have increased level of conductivity with the application of heat. As the temperature rises an increasing number of valence electrons absorb sufficient energy to break the covalent bond and to contribute to the number of free carriers. They have negative temperature coefficient.

21 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept Energy Levels The farther an electron is from the nucleus the higher is its energy state. An electron that has left its parent atom has higher energy state than any electron in the atomic structure. Energy Semiconductors E g = 0.67 ev (Ge) E g = 1.1 ev () E g = 1.43 ev (GaAs) Conduction Band Energy Insulators Conduction Band Energy Gap: E g > 5 ev Valence Band Energy Conductors Energy Gap Valence Band Free electrons can establish conduction. An electron in the valence band of must absorb more energy than one in the valence band of Ge to become a free carrier. Unable to reach conduction level, energy gap is so high 1 ev = 1.6 x 10 ;19 Coloumb. 1 Volt = 1.6 x 10 ;19 Joule Conduction Band Valence Band Conduction band and Valence band overlaps.

22 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept Extrinsic Materials n-type and p-type materials nce is the most frequently used semiconductor as the base (substrate) we continue our discussion on. On the other hand,, Ge, GaAs all have similar covalent bonding features. The characteristics of semiconductor materials can be altered significantly by doping a certain type of material to the base material base atoms () 1 specific impurity atom 1 specific impurity atom can totally change bond structure which leads a total change of electrical properties of the material. The material subjected to doping process is called extrinsic material.

23 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 23 n-type materials Sb Sb 51 : Antimony Or As 33, P 15 impurity atom; donor atom. Note that 4 covalent bonds are present, there is an additional 5 th electron coming from donor atom, which is unassociated to any covalent bond. Inserted impurity atom has donated a free electron to the structure. 5 th valence electron of Sb. Donor atoms donate electrons (e ; ) to the substrate Energy Semiconductors with donor atoms Conduction Band Energy Gap for donor atoms Energy Gap for intrinsic materials 1 impurity atom in base atoms Doping of 1 atom per 10 7 base atoms Results in 10 5 in base atoms. Carrier concentration has increased significantly. Valence Band

24 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 24 p-type materials B Note that the impurity atoms are having 3 valence B 5 : Boron electrons. There is insufficient number of electrons to complete Or In 49, Ga 31, A 13, impurity atom; acceptor atom. Hole: Indicates absence of an electron covalent bonds. The vacancy is called holes, can be represented by a small circle or (e : ). The diffused impurities with 3 electrons are called acceptor atoms. Acceptor atoms accepts electrons (e ; ) from the substrate 1 st 2 nd B B The gap related to a hole is filled with an electron, and a new vacancy resembling the hole is created. This process is continued again, along other substrate atoms. This is like the hole is moving in one direction, and an electron is moving in the opposite direction. 3 rd B Flow of the holes When expose to an electric field to free carriers: If flow of e : Then flow of e ; (opposite to the conventional flow)

25 KOM2751 Analog Electronics :: Dr. Muharrem Mercimek :: YTU - Control and Automation Dept. 25 Majority and minority carriers In the intrinsic materials the number of free carriers in Ge or is due only those few electrons passed energy gap. In the extrinsic materials both electrons and holes constitutes the free carriers Symbol List Donor ions Acceptor ions Free carriers(electrons) n-type material majority carriers: electrons minority carriers: holes For n-type materials the number of electrons outweighs the number of holes Free carriers (holes) p-type material majority carriers: holes minority carriers: electrons For p-type materials the number of holes outweighs the number of electrons

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