ADVANCED CHEMISTRY 2

Transcription

1 ADVANCED CHEMISTRY 2 Philip Matthews ±m±l CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

2 Acknowledgements How to use this book INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 88 Periodicity of physical properties 88.1 Periodicity of ionisation energies 88.2 Periodicity of atomic volume 88.3 Periodicity of atomic radius 88.4 Periodicity of melting and boiling points 88.5 Periodicity of valency 88.6 Periodicity of electronegativity 89 Periodicity of chemical properties 89.1 How this unit is arranged 89.2 How do properties change down a Group? 89.3 How do properties change across a Period? 89.4 Diagonal relationships between some elements 90 Hydrogen and hydrides 90.1 The dement 90.2 The large-scale extraction of hydrogen 90.3 The uses of hydrogen 90.4 The chemical properties of hydrogen 90.5 Hydride formation with metals 90.6 Hydride formation with non-metals 90.7 Some unusual hydrides 91 Water 91.1 What is special about water? 91.2 Some chemical reactions of water page vii viii 87 The Periodic Table The origin of the Periodic Table The modern Periodic Table The Periodic Table and electron structures s The Periodic Table, metals and non-metals What are the differences between the A and B Groups? Heavy water The water cycle Water pollution Water treatment The estimation of the amount of oxygen in water Group I Reactions with oxygen Reactions with water The hydroxides The carbonates and hydrogencarbonates The nitrates and nitrites The sulphates, hydrogensulphates and sulphites Group II and hydroxides The carbonates and hydrogencarbonates The sulphates Explaining trends in solubilities Group III The hydroxides The sulphates Carbon Why is carbon important? Where is carbon found? Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide The importance of carbonates Carbon disulphide Group IV m

3 The importance of Silicon The extraction of the elements Organic Compounds of the elements Sulphides Nitrogen The element Nitrogen, ammonia and fertilisers The place of nitrogen in Nature Ammonia and hydrazine Nitrogen oxides Nitrogen oxides and air pollution The chemistry of nitric acid Nitrates Nitrous acid and nitrites Nitrogen halides Group V The extraction of the elements and oxohalides The oxoacids The uses of phosphate salts Oxygen and oxides The element The large-scale extraction of oxygen The uses of oxygen The place of oxygen in Nature Ozone (trioxygen) Ozonolysis There are four types of oxide Typical basic oxides Typical acidic oxides Peroxides Group VI The action of heat on sulphur The extraction of sulphur Sulphuric acid and oxohalides Sulphites, sulphates and other oxoanions Group VII: the Discovery and extraction of the The laboratory preparation of the The reactivity of the The are oxidising agents Reactions with water and alkali Halide ions Compounds of the The hydrogen halides Inter-halogen Compounds Metal halides Making metal halides Compounds containing oxygen and Explaining redox reactions using redox Potentials The halogen oxoacids Pseudohalides and pseudo What is a pseudohalide? Pseudo The noble gases What is special about the noble gases? Compounds of the noble gases Transition metals Transition metals and their electron structures The oxidation states of transition metals What are complex ions? The shapes of complex ions What happens to the d orbitals in a complex ion? Why are transition metal Compounds often paramagnetic? Why are transition metal Compounds often coloured? How do the transition metals act as catalysts? Transition metals and alloys More about complex ions Isomerism in complex ions Stability constants of complex ions Complexes and redox potentials Chromium, manganese and iron The chemistry of chromium The chemistry of manganese The chemistry of iron Group IIB and hydroxides The sulphates, nitrates and carbonates ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Organic chemistry What is organic chemistry? 705 IV

4 109.2 What are organic chemicals like? The main types of organic chemical The tetrahedral arrangement around carbon atoms When is the arrangement of atoms around carbon not tetrahedral? Baeyer's strain theory Important homologous series Naming organic Compounds Chain isomerism Functional group isomerism What happens in organic reactions? Organic analysis 110 Optical activity What is optical activity? Polarimeters Why are some substances chiral? More about tartaric acid Properties of enantiomers and racemic mixtures Resolution of racemic mixtures and diastereoisomers The configurations of optical isomers The mutarotation of glucose 111 Alkanes The main types of hydrocarbon The importance of alkanes The reactions of alkanes How to prepare alkanes 112 Alkenes and alkynes The structure of alkenes Ways of making alkenes The oxidation of alkenes The addition reactions of alkenes Ozonolysis Polymerisation The oxo reaction The structure and preparation of alkynes The properties of alkynes 113 Aromatic hydrocarbons What are aromatic hydrocarbons? Ways of making arenes The reactions of arenes Reactions of the side chain Addition reactions of the benzene ring Electrophilic Substitution of benzene rings 114 More about electrophilic Substitution How a group on a benzene ring influences electrophilic Substitution Why do some groups activate and some deactivate the ring? Why do some groups direct ortho/para and some meta? Why do the behave differently to other groups? Organic halogen Compounds What are halogenoalkanes? Methods of making halogenoalkanes Halogenoalkanes are attacked by nucleophiles An elimination reaction of halogenoalkanes There are two types of aromatic halogen Compound How do we prepare halogenoarenes? What are the reactions of halogenoarenes? Alcohols The structures and uses of alcohols How we can make alcohols The oxidation reactions of alcohols Two reactions of the OH group Reactions in which the OH group is replaced by another group Dehydration reactions When alcohols react with acids, esters are made Aromatic alcohols There are two kinds of aromatic alcohol How to make phenol Why is phenol acidic? Phenol is more reactive than benzene Reactions of the OH group on phenol A test for phenol A polymerisation reaction of phenol Aldehydes and ketones Aldehydes and ketones contain a carbonyl group The manufacture of simple aldehydes and ketones Two methods of preparing aldehydes or ketones Two methods of preparing aromatic aldehydes and ketones Aldehydes and ketones undergo addition reactions Condensation reactions Aldehydes and ketones can be reduced Aldehydes are good reducing agents Ketones are hard to oxidise Reactions with Reaction with phosphorus pentachloride Polymerisation reactions of aldehydes The aldol condensation Cannizzaro's reaction 119 Carboxylic acids Most carboxylic acids are weak acids Ways of making carboxylic acids v

5 119.3 The reactions of carboxylic acids The chloroethanoic acids Carboxylic acid derivatives What are the derivatives of carboxylic acids? Acid Chlorides Acid anhydrides Amides The reactions of urea, (NH 2 ) 2 CO Esters Nitriles Ethers What are ethers? The preparation of ethers The reactions of ethers Amines There are several types of amine The preparation of amines Amines are bases Amines react with halogenoalkanes The acetylation and benzoylation of amines Reactions with nitrous acid at ordinary temperatures Substitution reactions of diazonium ions Coupling reactions of benzenediazonium ions Some reactions of phenylamine and other aromatic amines Amino acids and proteins What is an amino acid? Methods of making amino acids Amino acids exist as dipolar ions Amino acids can be both acidic and basic Electrophoresis and isoelectric points The geometry of amino acids Amino acids use a peptide link to join together Proteins How to discover the structure of a protein The X-ray patterns of proteins How enzymes act as catalysts Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) The structure of DNA HowDNAworks Genetic engineering 125 Carbohydrates What are carbohydrates? The structures of carbohydrates Polysaccharides Three properties of sugars 126 Vitamins, hormones, Steroids and pharmaceuticals Vitamins Hormones and Steroids Pharmaceuticals Polymers Monomers and polymers Polymers can be made by addition reactions Condensation polymers Polymers and industry Thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers Amorphous and crystalline polymers Mechanical properties of polymers Manufacturing techniques Uses of polymers Polymers and light Fats, oils, soaps and detergents What are fats and oils? How are soaps and detergents made? How do soaps and detergents clean? Organic problems What types of problem are there? Predicting structures from percentage compositions Using Information from spectra The results of chemical reactions Appendix B Table of ionisation energies Appendix C Table of atomic masses Appendix D Values of some universal constants Appendix E Organic analysis Bibliography Examination questions Answers to examination questions Subject index Index of names vi