CHEMISTRY PHYSICAL. of FOODS INTRODUCTION TO THE. CRC Press. Translated by Jonathan Rhoades. Taylor & Francis Croup
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1 Christos Ritzoulis Translated by Jonathan Rhoades INTRODUCTION TO THE PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY of FOODS CRC Press Taylor & Francis Croup Boca Raton London NewYork CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Croup, an informa business
2 Contents Introduction to the Greek edition Preface to the English edition About the author ix xi xiii Chapter 1 The physical basis of chemistry Thermodynamic systems Temperature Deviations from ideal behavior: Compressibility van der Waals equation Virial equation 9 Chapter 2 Chemical thermodynamics A step beyond temperature Thermochemistry Entropy Phase transitions Crystallization Application of phase transitions: Melting, solidifying, and crystallization of fats Chocolate: The example of cocoa butter Chemical potential 31 Chapter 3 The thermodynamics of solutions From ideal gases to ideal solutions Fractional distillation Chemical equilibrium Chemical equilibrium in solutions Ideal solutions: The chemical potential approach Depression of the freezing point and elevation of the boiling point Osmotic pressure Polarity and dipole moment Polarity and structure: Application to proteins 51 v
3 vi Contents 3.9 Real solutions: Activity and ionic strength On ph: Acids, bases, and buffer solutions Macromolecules in solution Enter a polymer Is it necessary to study macromolecules in food and biological systems in general? Intrinsic viscosity Flory-Huggins theory of polymer solutions Conformational entropy and entropy of mixing Enthalpy of mixing Gibbs free energy of mixing Osmotic pressure of solutions of macromolecules The Donnan effect Concentrated polymer solutions Phase separation Phase separation in two-solute systems 72 Chapter 4 Surface activity Surface tension Interface tension A special extended case Geometry of the liquid surface: Capillary effects Definition of the interface Surface activity Adsorption Thermodynamic basis of adsorption Adsorption isotherms Surfactants 90 Chapter 5 Surface-active materials What are they, and where are they found? Micelles Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB), critical micelle concentration (cmc), and Krafft point Deviations from the spherical micelle The thermodynamics of self-assembly Structures resulting from self-assembly Spherical micelles Cylindrical micelles Lamellae: Membranes Hollow micelles Inverse structures Phase diagrams 112
4 Contents vii 5.8 Self-assembly of macromolecules: The example of proteins Why are all proteins not compact spheres with their few nonpolar amino acids on the inside? How do proteins behave in solution? A protein folding on its own: The Levinthal paradox What happens when proteins are heated? What is the effect of a solvent on a protein? What are the effects of a protein on its solvent? Protein denaturation: An overview Casein: Structure, self-assembly, and adsorption Adsorption and self-assembly at an interface: A complex example To what extent does the above model apply to the adsorption of a typical spherical protein? Under what conditions does a protein adsorb to a surface, and how easily does it stay adsorbed there? 124 Chapter 6 Emulsions and foams Colloidal systems Emulsions and foams nomenclature Thermodynamic considerations A brief guide to atom-scale interactions van der Waals forces Hydrogen bonds Electrostatic interactions DLVO theory: Electrostatic stabilization of colloids Solvation interactions Stereochemical interactions: Excluded volume forces Emulsification Detergents: The archetypal emulsifiers Foaming Light scattering from colloids Destabilization of emulsions and foams Gravitational separation: Creaming Aggregation and flocculation Coalescence Phase inversion Disproportionation and Ostwald ripening 153 Chapter 7 Rheology Does everything flow? Elastic behavior: Hooke's law Viscous behavior: Newtonian flow 161
5 viii Contents 7A Non-Newtonian flow Time-independent non-newtonian flow Time-dependent non-newtonian flow Complex rheological behaviors Application of non-newtonian flow: Rheology of emulsions and foams How does a gel flow? (Viscoelasticity) Methods for determining viscoelasticity Creep Relaxation Dynamic measurements: Oscillation 169 Chapter 8 Elements of chemical kinetics Diamonds are forever? Concerning velocity Reaction laws Zero-order reactions First-order reactions Inversion of sucrose Second- and higher-order reactions Dependence of velocity on temperature Catalysis Biocatalysts: Enzymes The kinetics of enzymic reactions Lineweaver-Burk and Eadie-Hofstee graphs 187 Bibliography 191 Index 195
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