Contents. Preface...xv List of Contributors...xvii

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1 Preface...xv List of Contributors...xvii CHAPTER 1 Nanotechnology to Nanomanufacturing Introduction Approaches to Nanotechnology Transition from Nanotechnology to Nanomanufacturing Top-Down Approach Bottom-Up Approach Conclusions...10 References...13 CHAPTER 2 Gas Phase Nanofication: A Strategy to Impart Fast Response in Sensors Introduction Proposed Rationale Methods of Establishing the Desired Redox Po Sample Preparation Materials and Processing Characterization High Temperature Reductive Etching Process Gas Sensing Experiments Results and Discussion Mo- and MoO 3 -Based Studies W- and WO 3 -Based Studies TiO 2 -Based Studies Conclusions...50 References...51 CHAPTER 3 Advanced Characterization Techniques for Nanostructures Measurement of the Topology of Nanostructures Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope Scanning Probe Microscopy Optical Microscopes Measurement of Internal Geometries of Nanostructures Transmission Electron Microscope Focused Ion Beam...67 v

2 vi Contents X-Ray Diffraction Mercury Porosimetry Measurement of Composition of Nanostructures Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy Auger Electron Spectroscopy Conclusion...80 References...81 CHAPTER 4 Non-Lithographic Techniques for Nanostructuring of Thin Films and Bulk Surfaces Introduction Template-Assisted Nanostructuring Electric Field Induced Nanostructuring Laser-Induced Nanostructuring Vapour Liquid Solid Technique Summary and Outlook Acknowledgements References CHAPTER 5 Engineered Carbon Nanotube Field Emission Devices Introduction Synthesis Positional Control Alignment Control Field Emission Electron Microscopy Parallel Electron Beam Lithography X-Ray Sources Microwave Sources Displays Gas Ionization Sensors and Gauges Interstellar Propulsion Conclusion Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 6 Upconverting Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Biological Applications Introduction The Mechanism of Fluorescent UC...189

3 vii 6.3 Upconverting Nanoparticles Conjugation of Biomolecules to UCN UCN for Biological Applications UCN in Immunoassays UCN in Bioimaging UCN for Photodynamic Therapy Conclusion Acknowledgements References CHAPTER 7 Micro- and Nanomachining Introduction Machining Effects at the Microscale Shear Angle Prediction Plastic Behavior at Large Strains Langford and Cohen s Model Walker and Shaw s Model Usui s Model Sawtooth Chip Formation in Hard Turning Fluid-Like Flow in Chip Formation Size Effects in Micromachining Nanomachining Nanometric Machining Theoretical Basis of Nanomachining Comparison of Nanometric Machining and Conventional Machining Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 8 Design of Experiments: A Key to Innovation in Nanotechnology Introduction to DoE OFAT: The Predominant Method Used in Practice Traditional Methods Used in Research and Development Completely Randomized Design Two-Level Factorial Design RSM Taguchi s Method Opportunities for Improvement in Experimentation Modern DoE Methods Appropriate for Nanotechnology and Nanomanufacturing Split Plot Design and Its Variants...240

4 viii Contents MSSP Design Repeated Measures Saturated and Supersaturated Design Mixture Design Computer Deterministic Experiments Computer-Generated Design: Alphabetical Optimal Design Summary of Nanotechnology Articles That Use Statistical Experimentation Final Remarks References CHAPTER 9 Environmental and Occupational Health Issues with Nanoparticles Introduction Potential Health Effects Current State of the Literature Characterization of Airborne Nanoparticles Conclusions References CHAPTER 10 Commercialization of Nanotechnologies: Technology Transfer from University Research Laboratories Introduction Venture Capitalists Start-Up Companies in Nanotechnology Role of Government in Commercialization Role of Academic Research in Commercializing Nanotechnology Products Technology Transfer for Nanotechnology Products IP Impact and Ownership Patents Trade Secrets Copyright Role of the Entrepreneur, Major Corporations, and National Laboratories in Commercialization Concluding Remarks Acknowledgments References Internet Resources...278

5 ix CHAPTER 11 Fabrication of Hydrogel Micropatterns by Soft Photolithography Introduction Microfabrication Microfabrication Techniques Lithography Hydrogel as a Biomaterial Soft Photolithography of Hydrogel Micropatterns Fabrication of PDMS Stamp Surface Functionalization of Silicon Substrates by Silanization Soft Photolithography Conclusion References CHAPTER 12 Nanocrystalline Diamond for RF-MEMS Applications Introduction Diamond Crystal Structure and Properties Chemical Vapour Deposition of Diamond Films Growth Mechanism of NCD Films Techniques for the Characterization of NCD Films Mechanical Resonators Electrostatic and Thermal Switches Design of the Thermally Actuated NCD Actuator Fabrication and Integration Measurement and Analysis Acknowledgements References CHAPTER 13 Analysis of the Effects of Micromachining Using Nanostructured Cutting Tools Introduction Computational Analyses Computational Analysis of Temperature in Micromachining Finite Element Analysis Computational Results Uncoated Microtools Coated Cutting Tools Discussion...337

6 x Contents 13.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 14 Metal Oxide Nanopowder Introduction Use of Nanopowders Since the Year The Chemistry of Metal Oxide Nanopowder Important Behaviour of Metal Oxide Nanopowder Criteria for the Synthesis of Metal Oxide Requirements for the Synthesis of Nanoparticles Controlling Factors for the Growth of Nanopowder Different Methods Used for the Synthesis of Metal Oxide Nanopowder High Temperature Synthesis Low Temperature Synthesis Replication Method Mechanical Attrition Hydrothermal Synthesis Inverse Micelle Method Sol Gel Process General Mechanism for Sol Gel Process Acid-Catalysed Mechanism Pechini Method Characterization of Metal Oxide Nanopowder Infrared Spectroscopy Ultraviolet Spectroscopy Thermal Analysis Raman Spectroscopy Atomic Force Microscopy X-Ray Diffraction Studies Wide Angle X-Ray Scattering Small Angle X-Ray Scattering Electron Microscopy Transmission Electron Microscopy Scanning Electron Microscopy Characterization of Porosity Application Based on Phase Transfer The Synthesis of Monometal-Based Nanopowder Use of Titania Film in Car...384

7 xi 14.7 Synthesis of Bimetallic Alkoxide for the Preparation of Bimetallic Oxide Nanopowder Physico-Chemical Properties of Bimetallic Alkoxides Preparation of Bimetallic Oxide Nanopowder Via Sol Gel Process Some SEM Data of Bimetallic Oxide Applications of Metal Oxide for Photoluminescence Conclusions Future Prospects Acknowledgement Dedication References CHAPTER 15 Some Approaches to Large-Scale Manufacturing of Liposomes Introduction Structure and Self-Assembly of Phospholipids Biological Functionality of Liposomes Conventional Liposomes Cationic Liposomes Thermosensitive (Temperature-Sensitive) Liposomes ph-sensitive Liposomes Long-Circulating (Sterically Stabilized) Liposomes Ultradeformable Liposomes (Transferosomes) Methods of Liposome Preparation Thin Film Hydration Method Reverse Phase Evaporation Vesicles Freeze-Drying Method Proliposome Methods Large-Scale Manufacture of Particulate-Based Proliposomes Proliposomes Manufactured Using Fluidized-Bed Coating Proliposomes Produced Using Air-Jet (Fluid Energy) Milling Proliposomes Produced Using Spray Drying Large-Scale Manufacture of Ethanol-Based Proliposomes Conclusions References...413

8 xii Contents CHAPTER 16 Nanocoatings in Medicine: Antiquity and Modern Times Introduction What is a Nanocoating? Common Nanocoating Methods Nonmedical Applications of Nanocoating Technologies Nanoprotection Mechanical Properties New Functionality Nanocoating of Medical Devices Dentistry Implants Stents Cells Miscellaneous Nanocoating of Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms Conclusions References CHAPTER 17 Smart Precursors for Smart Nanoparticles Introduction Type of Nanoparticles Novel Properties of Materials at the Nanoscale Structure of Nanoparticles Conductive Properties Metal Oxide Shape of the Particles Particle Size and Its Distributions Surface Charge Density and their Colloidal Stability Interfacial Polarity Cross-Linking Functionality Chemistry of Metal Alkoxides Used as Single-Source Molecular Precursors for the Synthesis of Nanomaterials Geometrical Concept in the Design of Molecular Structure Schematic Representation of the Major Experimental Steps Involved in the Synthesis of Mixed Metal Oxide Nanopowder Reactivity of Metal Substitution Reactions Molecular Structure Plays the Decisive Role...465

9 xiii Synthesis of Nanomaterials Capping Agents Liquid-Phase Synthesis Advantages of Vapor-Phase Synthesis Methods Used for Liquid or Vapor Precursor Process Processing for the Synthesis of Nanostructure Materials in the Nanoparticle Vacuum Thermal Evaporation Technique for Deposition Experimental Techniques FTIR Spectra Difference in Energy States = Energy of Light Absorbed Calcination at 450 C for 4 h in Dry Air Ultraviolet and Visible Spectroscopy Thermal Gravimetric Analysis and Differential Thermal Analysis Specific Surface Area Scanning Electron Microscopy Probe Microscopy Diffraction Techniques Neutron Diffraction Miscellaneous Techniques Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy Mass Spectroscopy Photoelectron Spectroscopy X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) Applications of Nanomaterials Uses of Nanomaterials for Various Applications Thin Coatings Conclusion Dedication References Index...539