2 Big Challenges of Classification

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1 Classification

2 Classification Classify to group things together based on similarities Why Classify? To make organisms/items easier to identify To make organisms/items easier to compare Allows us to predict anatomical, physiological and genetic characteristics it may share with other organisms. How do we classify? Compare Traits features or characteristics of an organism/item When dealing with living things, the science of Classification is called Taxonomy

3 2 Big Challenges of Classification 1. Many different kinds of living things Today we have identified and named 1.5 million species Millions more are believed to be unclassified Organisms scattered all over the world, some in harsh, difficult to reach environments 2. Classifications are made by people Opinions may differ from scientist to scientist

4 Timeline of Classification B.C. Aristotle 2 Kingdom Broad Classification Carl Linnaeus 2 Kingdom Multi-divisional Classification (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family Genus, Species) 3. Evolutionary Classification (After Darwin) Group By lines of Evolutionary Descent 4. 5 Kingdom System 1950s 5. 6 Kingdom System early 1990s 6. 3 Domain System late 1990s

5 Early Classification Aristotle B.C. Plant Green Does not move Animal Not green Does move Tree Shrub Herb Air Land Water Size Where live Pattern of growth

6 When classifying organisms those that share characteristics are placed into similar groups. The more similar their characteristics then the closer the grouping.

7 Systema Naturae Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (1735) Swedish Botanist Reworked Classification system Based on Comparative Morphology Called his classification Systema Naturae Used a hierarchy of categories to classify Compared physical traits of Organisms Used Comparative Morphology He is known as the father of our modern system of classification

8 Linnaeus Divisions Still Used in Modern Classification 1. Kingdom largest group 2. Phylum 3. Class 4. Order 5. Family 6. Genus 7. Species (Most Closely Related)

9 Each taxonomic level is more comprehensive than the previous Grizzly bear Black bear Giant Coral Sea star one. panda snake Red fox Abert squirr el KINGDOM Animalia PHYLUM Chordata CLASS Mammalia ORDER Carnivora FAMILY Ursidae GENUS Ursus SPECIES Ursus arctos The named taxonomic unit at any level is called a taxon.

10 Taxons Within each category, a particular group is called a Taxon Many Taxons for each category Ex: Mammalia is the Taxon for the Class category in Humans Ex: Homo is the Taxon for the Genus category in Humans Carnivora is the Taxon for the Order category in Lions

11 Linnaeus Introduced Scientific Naming Binomial Nomenclature is the 2 word scientific name of an organism Uses Genus and Species Genus is capitalized, not species, all italicized In writing the name, can t italicize, so underline Homo sapien (Genus and species of Human) Panthera leo (Genus and species of Lion) Used Latin Universal unifying, dead language Latin can be understood by all scientists, regardless of native language Uniform, unlike common name usage Ex: Cougar, Puma, Panther- all same organism name depends upon where you live, but Scientific same» Felis concolor

12 Lion 1. Kingdom Animalia (all Animals) 2. Phylum Chordata (All vertebrate animals) 3. Class Mammalia (All Mammals mammary glands) 4. Order Carnivora (Meat eaters) 5. Family Felidae (includes all Cats) 6. Genus Panthera (Includes all roaring Cats) 7. Species leo (Lions)

13 Procyon lotor Pro = early Cyon = dog Lotor = swimming Spermophilus tridecemlineatus Sperm = seed Philus = loving Tridecem = 13 Lineatus = line

14 May tell you where it was first discovered: Didelphis virginiana Virginia Sylvilagus floridanus Florida Or who discovered it: Lepus townsendii discovered by Townsend

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16 Domains Bacteria Archaea Eukarya Earliest organisms.. Archaea -unicellular prokaryotic organisms which live in extremely harsh environments Bacteria -unicellular prokaryotes found in nearly all environments Eukarya - unicellular and multicellular organisms which have DNA contained within a nuclear membrane

17 DOMAIN ARCHAEA DOMAIN EUKARYA DOMAIN BACTERIA Kingdoms Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista Plantae Fungi Animalia

18 Classification of Living Things DOMAIN Bacteria Archaea Eukarya KINGDOM Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia CELL TYPE Prokaryote Prokaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote CELL STRUCTURES Cell walls with peptidoglycan Cell walls without peptidoglycan Cell walls of cellulose in some; some have chloroplasts Cell walls of chitin Cell walls of cellulose; chloroplasts No cell walls or chloroplasts NUMBER OF CELLS Unicellular Unicellular Most unicellular; some colonial; some multicellular Most multicellular; some unicellular Multicellular Multicellular MODE OF NUTRITION Autotroph or heterotroph Autotroph or heterotroph Autotroph or heterotroph Heterotroph Autotroph Heterotroph EXAMPLES Streptococcus, Escherichia coli Methanogens, halophiles Amoeba, Paramecium, slime molds, giant kelp Mushrooms, yeasts Mosses, ferns, flowering plants Sponges, worms, insects, fishes, mammals

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20 Dichotomous keys are useful for identifying organisms. They have questions about what you are trying to identify and you follow it until you find what you are looking for Design Principles: Each question divides the group of organisms into two smaller groups based on a pair of alternative characteristics Subsequent groups may focus on more minor detail

21 In most cases the characteristic will be readily observed or measurable It is better to choose characteristics that are uninfluenced by environmental variation Shape and number are often good characteristics on which to base alternative pairings A complete key will have each type of organism being classified separated with a final identifying name

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24 Phylogeny & Systematics Phylogeny evolutionary history of life (species) based on common ancestries inferred from fossil record morphological & biochemical resemblances molecular evidence Systematics the study of biological diversity in an evolutionary context connects classification system to phylogeny by Taxonomy categorizing & naming organisms

25 Cladistics and Phylogeny Clade - a group of organisms Cladistics- study of (all) who share common relationships among characteristics (ancestor). organisms shown by common characteristics not found in ancestral group Cladogram- diagram showing relationships among organisms

26 Systematists must sort through homologous features or characters to separate shared derived characters from shared primitive characters. A shared derived character is unique to a particular clade. A shared primitive character is found not only in the clade being analyzed, but older clades too. Which one is used in phylogeny?

27 Clade - consists of an ancestral species and all its descendents, a monophyletic group Monophyletic-a group which shares a common ancestor. Paraphyletic- a group which contains some, but not all members associated with a common ancestor. Polyphyletic- a group which does not share a common ancestor.

28 Building phylogenies marsupial mole placental mole Morphological & molecular homologies similarities based on shared ancestries bone structure DNA sequences beware of analogous structures convergent evolution

29 Illustrating phylogeny Cladograms patterns of shared characteristics Classify organisms according to the order in time at which branches arise along a phylogenetic tree

30 Constructing a Cladogram: Step 1 Sort homology from analogy: Homologous structures Analogous structures: do not have common ancestry; different structure, same function

31 Constructing a Cladogram: Step 2 Identify shared primitive characters: Not limited to group being studied (e.g. backbone) Identify shared derived characters: Characteristics unique to clade (hair in mammals)

32 Constructing a Cladogram: Step 3 Outgroup comparison The ingroup is what s being studied The outgroup is what you compare ingroup to Identify characteristics to study Make a data matrix Make the cladogram

33 Out-group (reptiles) In-group (mammals) Eastern box turtle Duck-billed platypus Red North American kangaroo beaver Characters: Long gestation Gestation Hair, mammary glands Vertebral column 3 Long gestation 1 2 Gestation Hair, mammary glands Vertebral column

34 Cladogram

35 Molecular Clocks Based on observation that some genomic regions evolve at constant rates DNA or proteins can be compared and the number of sequence differences is proportional to time passed since branching occurred What makes this possible?

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37 Molecular Systematics Hypothesizing phylogenies using molecular data apply principle of parsimony simplest explanation fewest evolutionary events that explain data hypothetical bird species 3 possible phylogenies (there are more)

38 Parsimony & analogy vs. homology Phylogenetic trees are hypotheses Which is the most parsimonious tree?

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