3.2.2 All cells arise from other cells

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1 alevelbiology.co.uk SPECIFICATION Within multicellular organisms, not all cells retain the ability to divide. Eukaryotic cells that do retain the ability to divide show a cell cycle. DNA replication occurs during the interphase of the cell cycle. Mitosis is the part of the cell cycle in which a eukaryotic cell divided to produce two daughter cells, each with the identical copies of DNA produced by the parent cell during DNA replication. The behavior of chromosome during interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase of mitosis. The role of spindle fibres attached to centromeres in the separation of chromatids. Division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) usually occurs, producing two new cells. Students should be able to recognize the stages of the cell cycle: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase (including cytokinesis). They also be able to explain the appearance of cells in each stage of mitosis. Source: AQA Spec

2 Cellular Division Eukaryotic cells are capable of producing new cells from a parent cell by a process called cellular division. Not all eukaryotic cells are capable of undergoing cellular division. For those that can undergo cell division, the cell follows a series of step called the cell cycle. There are two types of cell division that can occur in eukaryotic cells: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis vs Meiosis 1. Mitosis is the type of cell division which produces two daughter cells that are identical from the parent cell. 2. Meiosis is the type of cell division which produces daughter cells that is not identical to the parent cell, and contains half the amount genetic material as the parent cell. (This will be covered in more detail later) Stages of Mitosis The diagram below shows the processes involved in mitosis. You need to learn what happens in each step and how daughter cells that are identical to the parent cells are produced. Image source: OpenStax CNX CELL CYCLE

3 Interphase Interphase is the stage in the cell cycle where biochemical processes occur to prepare the cell for mitosis. The interphase is divided into 3 stages: G1 phase, S phase, and G2 phase. G1 phase is when cells grow in size and synthesise mrna and proteins needed for mitosis. S phase follows the G1 phase and is when DNA replication occurs. Chromosomes are replicated forming two sister chromatids each. G2 phase follows the S phase and is when the cell continues to grow and synthesise proteins needed for mitosis. It is during the G2 phase when most microtubules, needed for mitosis are produced. Stages of Mitosis Stages of Mitosis Image Source: OpenStax CNX

4 Prophase Image Source: The Biology Corner Prophase During the prophase, the nuclear membrane of the cell breaks down forming small vesicles. In the process, the nucleolus disintegrates. The centrosome that have been duplicated in the G2-phase separates. They start to move towards opposite poles of the cells. Mitotic spindles extend between the centrosomes, pushing them further apart when the microtubules lengthen. Chromosomes become visible, which is composed of two chromatids joined together at the centromere. Prometaphase This the second stage of the mitotic cycle where remnants of the nuclear envelope disappears. Protein structures called kinetochores appear. Microtubules that emerges from the centrosome lengthen to reach the chromosomes and attach to the kinetochore. Proton motors associated to microtubules arrange the chromosomes towards the center of the cell. Prometaphase ends when all the kinetochore microtubules have attached to their kinetochore. Prometaphase Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

5 Metaphase This is the third stage of the mitotic cycle. This is when the centromeres of the chromosomes line up in an imaginary line equidistant (at equal distances) to the two centrosome poles called the metaphase plate. This is facilitated by the counter effect of the pull of the two opposing kinetochore microtubules. Metaphase Image Source: The Biology Corner Anaphase This is the fourth stage of the mitotic cycle. This is when the the centromere splits, dividing the chromosome into two sister chromatids. Each chromatid moves to opposite poles of cells when the mitotic spindle shortens. Anaphase Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

6 Telophase This is the fifth stage of the mitotic cycle. The mitotic spindle disappears during telophase and the chromosomes uncoil to form diffuse chromatin. A nuclear membrane forms around the daughter chromosomes present in both ends of the cell. Telophase Image Source: The Biology Corner Cytokinesis Image Source: OpenStax CNX Cytokinesis This is the final step in cellular division. This is when physical separation of cytoplasmic materials occur in the parent cell. For animal cells, a cleavage furrow is produced by having the actin filaments pull the equator of the cell inwards, forming the fissure called a cleavage furrow. The cleavage furrow continually develops eventually dividing the cell in two. For plant cells, a cell plate is produced by having Golgi vesicles come together at the position of the original metaphase plate separating the two sets of chromosomes. The cell plate continually grows until it reach the cell walls. New cell walls are then produced from the contents of the vesicle.