8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system
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1 The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance : part II PowerPoint Lectures for Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Seventh Edition Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey Biology 1408 Dr. Chris Doumen Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko 8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system! The cell cycle control system is a cycling set of molecules in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle.! Checkpoints in the cell cycle can stop an event or signal an event to proceed. 1
2 8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system! There are three major checkpoints in the cell cycle. 1. G 1 checkpoint allows entry into the S phase or causes the cell to leave the cycle, entering a nondividing G 0 phase. 2. G 2 checkpoint, and 3. M checkpoint.! Those checkpoints are under cellular control and research on the control of the cell cycle is one of the hottest areas in biology today. Figure 8.8A G 1 checkpoint G 0 G 1 S Control system M G 2 M checkpoint G 2 checkpoint 2
3 8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors! Cancer currently claims the lives of 20% of the people in the United States and other industrialized nations.! Cancer cells escape controls on the cell cycle.! Cancer cells divide rapidly, often in the absence of growth factors, spread to other tissues through the circulatory system, and grow without being inhibited by other cells. 8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors! A tumor is an abnormally growing mass of body cells. Benign tumors remain at the original site. Malignant tumors spread to other locations, called metastasis. Tumor Glandular tissue Lymph vessels Blood vessel Tumor in another part of the body Growth Invasion Metastasis 3
4 8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors! Cancers are named according to the organ or tissue in which they originate. Carcinomas arise in external or internal body coverings. Sarcomas arise in supportive and connective tissue. Leukemias and lymphomas arise from blood-forming tissues.! Cancer treatments Localized tumors can be removed surgically and/or treated with concentrated beams of high-energy radiation. Chemotherapy is used for metastatic tumors. MEIOSIS AND CROSSING OVER 4
5 8. Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs! In humans, somatic cells (non-sex cells ) have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes and Each pair of chromosome is the result of the combination of one member from each parent.! The human sex chromosomes X and Y differ in size and genetic composition.! X chromosomes are much taller than Y chromosomes ( and thus carry more genes). 8. Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs! The other pairs of chromosomes are autosomes! They are named by number, starting from tallest to shortest! Tallest is chromosome pair 1, next tallest chromosome pair 2, and so on. 5
6 8. Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs Centromere Sister chromatids Pair of homologous chromosomes 5 Humans have 23 pair Sex chromosomes 8. Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs! The members of each pair of autosomes are called the homologous chromosomes! Homologous chromosomes thus have a maternal and paternal origin and are matched in length, centromere position, and gene composition and locations The only non-homologous pair of chromosomes would be XY ( XX is a pair of homologous chromosomes) 6
7 8. Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs The position of a gene on a chromosome is called a locus (plural, loci) Locus Pair of homologous chromosomes Different versions of a gene may be found at the same locus on maternal and paternal chromosomes. For example : eye color is determined by a gene on a chromosome and this gene comes in different versions Centromere Sister chromatids One duplicated chromosome 8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes! An organism s life cycle is the sequence of stages leading from the adults of one generation to the adults of the next.! The cells of humans and many animals and plants are diploid ; this means the somatic body cells that have The chromosomes are present in sets of two, Each set originate from a chromosome from each parent. 7
8 8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes! During sexual reproduction, two cells merge. Those are called the gametes or sex cells.! Since two sex cell merge and contribute one copy of each chromosome set from each parent, it results in all somatic cells have paired sets sets of chromosomes ( each pair called homologous chromosomes).! In other words, the number of chromosomes in somatic cells is always even ( = diploid or 2n) 8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes! In order to maintain the same number of chromosomes, the sex cells need to reduce their chromosomes to half the normal number.! Sex cells have one set of chromosomes (n) and are called haploid cells.! Humans for example have 46 chromosomes in their somatic cells. Or 2 sets of 23 chromosomes! In humans, being diploid means 2n = 46 and n = 23 8
9 Figure 8.12A Haploid gametes (n = 23) n Egg cell n Sperm cell Meiosis Fertilization Ovary Testis Diploid zygote (2n = 46) 2n Multicellular diploid adults (2n = 46) Mitosis Key Haploid stage (n) Diploid stage (2n) 8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes! Fertilization is the union of the gametes; the sperm and egg which are haploid (n)! Meiosis is a process that converts diploid cells (2n chromosomes) to haploid cells (n chromosomes). While mitosis occurs in all cells of the body, meiosis only occurs in the sex organs, producing gametes sperm and eggs.! A fertilized egg results in a zygote, with diploid chromosome number, one set from each parent (n + n = 2n) 9
10 8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes! All sexual life cycles include an alternation between a diploid stage and a haploid stage.! Producing haploid gametes prevents the chromosome number from doubling in every generation Simplified example of gamete formation in a organism with 2n=2 1. The pair of chromosomes is duplicated first; this is followed by two cell divisions. 2. In the first division, each duplicated pair is divided among two cells 3. In the second cell division, the sister chromatids of are divided among two new cells. INTERPHASE MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II Sister chromatids A pair of homologous chromosomes in a diploid parent cell A pair of duplicated homologous chromosomes 10
11 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number! Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces haploid gametes in diploid organisms.! Two haploid gametes combine in fertilization to restore the diploid state in the zygote Meiosis reduces the chromosome number! Meiosis and mitosis are similar in that they are preceded by the duplication of chromosomes. However, meiosis is followed by two consecutive cell divisions and mitosis is followed by only one cell division.! Because in meiosis, one duplication of chromosomes is followed by two divisions, each of the four daughter cells produced has a haploid set of chromosomes.
12 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number! Meiosis I Prior to Meiosis, the chromosomes are duplicated during the Synthesis phase of interphase. Just as in Mitosis, a spindle apparatus will develop to separate the chromosomes. Just as in Mitosis, the different aspects of Meiosis are named Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase. But Meiosis is characterized by two divisions, which are called Meiosis I and Meiosis II Meiosis reduces the chromosome number! Meiosis I Prophase I events occurring in the nucleus. Chromosomes coil and become compact. Homologous chromosomes come together as pairs by synapsis. Each pair, with four chromatids, is called a tetrad. Non-sister chromatids exchange genetic material by crossing over. 12
13 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number! In the following slides, the maternal and paternal chromosomes are represented by the same number! The diploid status of this example cell is 6; meaning n = 3 ; thus 2n = 6 (3 pair of homologous chromosomes) Homologous chromosomes Maternal chromosome Paternal chromosome Meiosis reduces the chromosome number In this example, the diploid cell is thus 2n=6. The 1 s are homologous chromosomes. So are the 2 s and 3 s. During interphase, each chromosome duplicates, now being represented by sister chromatids Homologous chromosomes Sister chromatids 33 maternal During S part of interphase 33 paternal 13
14 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number During Prophase I of Meiosis I, the duplicated homologous chromosomes pair up. The combination of maternal and paternal duplicated chromosomes are called tetrads Tetrad Meiosis Prophase I 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number During Metaphase I of Meiosis I, the tetrads line up at the equatorial region of the cell. Remember that the spindle apparatus is formed across these tetrads and microtubules are attached to the kinetochore of each pair of sister chromatids Meiosis Metaphase I 14
15 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number During Anaphase I of Meiosis I, duplicated homologous chromosomes ( in the form of sister chromatids) are moved to opposite parts of the cell Meiosis Anaphase I Meiosis reduces the chromosome number During Telophase I of Meiosis I, duplicated homologous chromosomes have reached the poles. A nuclear envelope re-forms around chromosomes in some species. Each nucleus has now the haploid number of chromosomes( but each chromosome with sister chromatids) Meiosis Telophase I 33 15
16 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number The segregation (separation) of these duplicated chromosomes is random and thus can result in different possibilities equal to 2 n In this case, since 2n = 6, 2 3 possibilities exist ( = 8)! Figure 8.13_1 INTERPHASE: Chromosomes duplicate MEIOSIS I Prophase I Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Centrioles Sites of crossing over Spindle Nuclear envelope Chromatin Sister chromatids Tetrad Fragments of the nuclear envelope 16
17 MEIOSIS I Metaphase I Spindle microtubules attached to a kinetochore Anaphase I Sister chromatids remain attached Centromere (with a kinetochore) Metaphase plate Homologous chromosomes separate 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number MEIOSIS I: Homologous chromosomes separate INTERPHASE: Chromosomes duplicate Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Centrioles Sites of crossing over Spindle Spindle microtubules attached to a kinetochore Sister chromatids remain attached Nuclear envelope Chromatin Sister chromatids Tetrad Fragments of the nuclear envelope Centromere (with a kinetochore) Metaphase plate Homologous chromosomes separate 17
18 Figure 8.13_3 Telophase I and Cytokinesis Cleavage furrow Cell separate and now proceed into the next phase called Meiosis II 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number! Meiosis II follows meiosis I without chromosome duplication.! Each of the two haploid products enters meiosis II, and the process resembles mitosis now.! The purpose is now to separate the sister chromatids into individual cells.! The end result is 4 cells, each with either a maternal or paternal chromosome from each original chromosome pair ( homologous chromosomes) 18
19 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number Original diploid cell Meiosis II simply separates the sister chromatids from every chromosome into separate cells. Meiosis I (2 n possibilities) Meiosis II Figure 8.13_4 MEIOSIS II: Sister chromatids separate Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II and Cytokinesis Sister chromatids separate Haploid daughter cells forming 19
20 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number! Meiosis II Prophase II Chromosomes coil and become compact again (if uncoiled after telophase I). Nuclear envelope, if re-formed, breaks up again.! Meiosis II Metaphase II Duplicated chromosomes align at the cell equator Meiosis reduces the chromosome number! Meiosis II Anaphase II Sister chromatids separate and chromosomes move toward opposite poles.! Meiosis II Telophase II Chromosomes have reached the poles of the cell. A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes. With cytokinesis, four haploid cells are produced. 20
21 8.14 Mitosis and meiosis have important similarities and differences! Mitosis and meiosis both begin with diploid parent cells that have chromosomes duplicated during the previous interphase.! However the end products differ. Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid somatic daughter cells. Meiosis produces four genetically unique haploid gametes. Figure 8.14 MITOSIS MEIOSIS I Prophase Parent cell (before chromosome duplication) Site of crossing over Prophase I Duplicated chromosome (two sister chromatids) Chromosome duplication 2n = 4 Chromosome duplication Tetrad formed by synapsis of homologous chromosomes Metaphase Metaphase I Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Tetrads (homologous pairs) align at the metaphase plate Anaphase Telophase Sister chromatids separate during anaphase Homologous chromosomes separate during anaphase I; sister chromatids remain together Daughter cells of meiosis I Anaphase I Telophase I Haploid n = 2 MEIOSIS II 2n Daughter cells of mitosis 2n No further chromosomal duplication; sister chromatids separate during anaphase II n n n n Daughter cells of meiosis II 21
22 Figure 8.14_1 MITOSIS MEIOSIS I Prophase Parent cell (before chromosome duplication) Site of crossing over Prophase I Chromosome duplication Chromosome duplication Metaphase 2n = 4 Tetrad Metaphase I Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Tetrads (homologous pairs) align at the metaphase plate Figure 8.14_2 MITOSIS Metaphase Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Anaphase Telophase Sister chromatids separate during anaphase 2n 2n Daughter cells of mitosis
23 Figure 8.14_3 MEIOSIS I Metaphase I Tetrads (homologous pairs) align at the metaphase plate Homologous chromosomes separate during anaphase I; sister chromatids remain together Daughter cells of meiosis I MEIOSIS II Anaphase I Telophase I Haploid n = 2 No further chromosomal duplication; sister chromatids separate during anaphase II n n n n Daughter cells of meiosis II 8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring! The importance of meiosis is that it creates genetic variation among the gametes! Both female and male create a complete new arrangement of homologous chromosomes in their respective sex cells.! This, together with the random meeting of egg and sperm results in the variation in individuals following fertilization 23
24 8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring! Independent orientation at metaphase I and seperation during anaphase I is the main driving force for this variation. Each pair of chromosomes independently aligns at the cell equator. There is an equal probability of the maternal or paternal chromosome facing a given pole. The number of combinations for chromosomes packaged into gametes is 2 n where n = haploid number of chromosomes. Another Example for Diploid = 2n= 4 Possibility A Possibility B Two equally probable arrangements of chromosomes at metaphase I A sex cell before meiosis. 2n = 4 24
25 Another Example for Diploid = 2n= 4 Possibility A Possibility B Two equally probable arrangements of chromosomes at metaphase I After Meiosis I Metaphase II Combination 1 Combination 2 Gametes After Meiosis II Possible gametes = 2 n = 2 2 = 4 Combination 3 Combination 4 Variations in gametes! How many different outcomes of homologous chromosome shuffling can occur during human gamete formation? 25
26 8.16 Homologous chromosomes may carry different versions of genes! Separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis thus lead to genetic differences between gametes. Homologous chromosomes may have different versions of a gene at the same locus (called alleles). One version was inherited from the maternal parent and the other came from the paternal parent. Since homologues move to opposite poles during anaphase I, gametes will receive either the maternal or paternal version of the gene Homologous chromosomes may carry different versions of genes Brown coat (C); black eyes (E) White coat (c); pink eyes (e)! For example, the gene for coat color and eye color are located on the same chromosome in mice.! The position of the specific gene on the chromosome is called a locus and the variation is called an allele. 26
27 8.16 Homologous chromosomes may carry different versions of genes Coat-color genes Brown C Eye-color genes Black E Locus for eye color C E C E c White e Pink Tetrad in parent cell (one homologous pair of duplicated chromosomes) c c e e Different versions for eye color (E and e) 8.16 Homologous chromosomes may carry different versions of genes! Meiosis separates those variations and the gametes now contain different alleles of certain! In this case, the parents may have had black eyes, brown coat but depending on the outcome of gamete formation and fertilization, the baby mice may be white with pink eyes. Brown C c White Black E e Pink Meiosis C C c c E E e e Tetrad in parent cell (homologous pair of duplicated chromosomes) Chromosomes of the four gametes 27
28 8.16 Homologous chromosomes may carry different versions of genes X 28
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