Biology: Life on Earth

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1 Biology: Life on Earth Eighth Edition Lecture for Chapter 11 The Continuity of Life: Cellular Reproduction

2 Cellular Reproduction Intracellular activity between one cell division to the next is the cell cycle Some activities involve growth (enlargement) of the cell Some activities involve duplication of genetic material and cellular division (reproduction)

3 Cellular Reproduction Reproduction from a single parent is asexual reproduction Some organisms reproduce asexually Multicellular organisms grow by asexual reproduction; some reproduce

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8 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle Eukaryotic cell cycle is more complex than that in prokaryotes Progression through cell cycle in multicellular organisms is variable Cells may exit the cell cycle and never divide again Cells may enter or continue through the cell cycle and divide in response to growth hormones

9 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle Eukaryotic cell cycle divided into two phases Interphase - Acquisition of nutrients, growth, chromosome duplication - Eukaryotic cells spend most time in interphase Cell division - One copy of every chromosome and half of cytoplasm and organelles parceled out into two daughter cells

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11 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle Interphase is divided into three phases G 1 (growth phase 1) Acquisition of nutrients and growth to proper size S (synthesis) phase DNA synthesis occurs, replicating every chromosome G 2 (growth phase 2) Completion of growth and readying for division

12 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle Decision to proceed or exit the cell cycle in G 1 Internal and external signals in G 1 stimulate cells to proceed through cycle and divide Cells may exit cycle to non-dividing G 0 phase Cells remain alive and metabolically active in G 0 Specialization (differentiation) occurs» Unique features of cell type develop

13 Mitosis and Meiosis There are two types of cell division in eukaryotes Mitotic cell division (mitosis) Meiotic cell division (meiosis)

14 Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis is the mechanism of asexual reproduction in eukaryotic cells Used in the reproduction of unicellular organisms Used in growth of fertilized egg into adult Used in cloning and stem cell research

15 Mitosis and Meiosis Mitotic cell division involves two steps Nuclear division Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic separation)

16 Mitosis and Meiosis Meiotic division occurs in animal ovaries and testes Two divisional steps produce four daughter cells that can become gametes Daughter cells are genetically different from parent cell and each other Daughter cells have half the genetic material of the parent cell

17 Mitosis Consists of Four Phases Cells prepare for mitotic division during interphase Chromosomes are replicated in S phase Necessary proteins are synthesized in G 1 and G 2

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19 Mitosis Consists of Four Phases Four phases of mitosis Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

20 Events of Mitotic Prophase Three major events occur in prophase 1. Duplicated chromosomes condense Sister chromatids in each duplicated chromosome coil up, forming small compact bodies

21 Events of Mitotic Prophase Three major events occur in prophase 2. Spindle microtubules form Centrioles serve as points from which spindle microtubules form (points called spindle poles) Plants, fungi, and some algae lack centrioles but still form spindle poles

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23 Events of Mitotic Prophase Three major events occur in prophase 3. Chromosomes are captured by the spindle Kinetochore structure at chromosome centromeres allows spindle fibers to attach Each sister chromatid attached to microtubules emanating from one of two spindle poles Shortening of spindle microtubules will pull sister chromatids apart towards opposite poles

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25 Events of Mitotic Metaphase Spindle microtubules attached to chromosome kinetochores lengthen and shorten Chromosomes pulled into a line perpendicular to the spindle

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27 Events of Mitotic Anaphase Sister chromatids separate in anaphase Motor proteins in kinetochores pull chromatids apart Daughter chromosomes (formerly chromatids) move towards each spindle pole Unattached spindle microtubules interact to push cell poles apart

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29 Events of Mitotic Telophase Four events of telophase 1. Spindle microtubules disintegrate 2. Nuclear membrane forms around each group of chromosomes at the poles 3. Chromosomes unwind and revert to their extended state 4. Nucleoli (disappeared in prophase) reappear

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31 Cytokinesis Cytokinesis differs in animal and plant cells Animal cells Microfilaments attach to plasma membrane at equator of cell Contraction of ring pinches off membrane, forming two cells

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34 Cytokinesis Cytokinesis differs in animal and plant cells Plant cells Stiff cell walls prevent pinching off Cell plate with cell wall and membrane material forms in the middle of the elongated cell

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36 Control of Cell Cycle The cells of some tissues divide frequently throughout lifespan e.g. skin, intestine Cell division occurs rarely or not at all in other tissues e.g. brain, heart, skeletal muscles Cell division in eukaryotes is driven by enzymes and controlled at specific checkpoints

37 Enzymes Drive the Cell Cycle The cell cycle is driven by proteins called Cyclin-dependent kinases, or Cdk s Kinases are enzymes that phosphorylate (add a phosphate group to) other proteins, stimulating or inhibiting their activity Cdk s are active only when they bind to other proteins called cyclins

38 Enzymes Drive the Cell Cycle Cell division occurs when growth factors bind to cell surface receptors, which leads to cyclin synthesis Cyclins then bind to and activate specific Cdk s

39 Enzymes Drive the Cell Cycle Activated Cdk s promote a variety of cell cycle events Synthesis and activation of proteins required for DNA synthesis Chromosome condensation Nuclear membrane breakdown Spindle formation Attachment of chromosomes to spindle Sister chromatid separation and movement

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41 Checkpoints Control Cell Cycle There are three major checkpoints in the eukaryotic cell cycle, each regulated by protein complexes G1 to S: G2 to mitosis Metaphase to anaphase

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43 Checkpoints Control Cell Cycle G1 to S: Ensures that the cell s DNA is suitable for replication p53 protein expressed when DNA is damaged Inhibits replication Stimulates synthesis of DNA repair enzymes Triggers cell death (apoptosis) if damage can t be repaired

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45 Checkpoints Control Cell Cycle G2 to mitosis: Ensures that DNA has been completely and accurately replicated

46 Checkpoints Control Cell Cycle Metaphase to anaphase: Ensures that the chromosomes are aligned properly at the metaphase plate a variety of proteins prevent separation of the sister chromatids if there are defects in chromosome alignment or spindle function

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