8/25/ Opening Questions: Are all living things made of cells? What are at least five things you know about cells?

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1 Chapter 3 The Cell: Module Hyperlinks 3.1 Cells are the fundamental units of life 3.2 Plant vs. animal cells 3.3 Membranes: structure 3.4 Membranes: function 3.5 The nucleus 3.6 Organelles in protein production 3.7 Chloroplasts and mitochondria 3.8 Other organelles 3.1 Opening Questions: Are all living things made of cells? What are at least five things you know about cells? 3.1 All living organisms consist of cells. Some living organisms have just one cell. Some living organisms have trillions of cells. Cells are the fundamental units of life. 3.1 Cells can be grouped into two categories. Prokaryotic cells Small, simple cells No organelles First appeared 3.5 BYA Unicellular Are you a prokaryote or a eukaryote? Eukaryotic cells Larger, complex cells Membrane-enclosed organelles First appeared 2.1 BYA Unicellular or multicellular 3.1 Cells can be grouped into two categories. Prokaryotic cells Bacteria and Archaea Eukaryotic cells Plants, Animals, Fungi, and Protists 3.1 All prokaryotes are relatively simple single-celled organisms. There are two domains of prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea. Prokaryotic fossils date back at least 3.5 billion years. 1

2 8/25/ Bacteria have some unique features and some features common to all cells. 3.2 Opening Questions: What are you really made of? Scientists estimate that only one in 10 of the cells in your body are actually human! The rest are largely prokaryote cells. These good bacteria help us digest food, synthesize vitamins, and protect against disease. How is it possible to have more bacteria cells than human cells? Does knowing the above change your view of bacteria? 3.2 Animals and Plants are made of eukaryotic cells that contain organelles. 3.2 Plant and animal cells have many organelles in common. Compared to prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells are relatively large (10-fold bigger) and more complex. All eukaryotic cells are fundamentally alike. All eukaryotic cells share: Eukaryotic cells contain organelles, which are membrane-enclosed structures that perform specific functions. Plasma membrane Nucleus Mitochondria Prokaryotes do not contain organelles! 3.2 Structure of an idealized animal cell 3.2 Structure of an idealized plant cell 2

3 3.2 Animal and plant cells have some unique organelles. Animal cells have lysosomes. Looking at cells under a microscope, you see cell walls and chloroplasts. What type of cells are these? Plant cells have chloroplasts, cell walls, and central vacuoles. 3.3 Opening Questions: Where does a cell start and stop? What defines a cell? What are the boundaries of a cell? If we look in a microscope, how do we know something is a cell? What criteria would you use? 3.3 Every cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane. All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. 3.3 Membranes are made of lipids Plasma membranes are made from two layers of phospholipids and integrated proteins. Membranes regulate the passage of materials. 3.3 Structure of a plasma membrane 3.4 Opening Questions: Who makes it into the exclusive club? Imagine that you and a group of friends are going out on a Saturday night. At the first club, the place is packed and there is even a line. At the second club, the room is almost empty. Which club is more likely to have a cover charge? Which one is going to be harder to get into? Now imagine that you are a molecule trying to get into a cell across the cell membrane. List all the scenarios that might make it harder or easier to gain entrance. 3

4 8/25/ Membranes regulate the passage of materials. 3.4 Membranes regulate what substances can enter and leave the cell. Cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. Organelles may have their own outer and internal membranes. Every membrane is selectively permeable. Some substances flow freely. Others pass under certain circumstances. Some cannot pass. The most important function of any membrane is to regulate the flow of materials. GO YIELD STOP 3.4 Transport across membranes can be passive or active. 3.4 Passive transport: Diffusion Passive transport requires no energy. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Substances move along a concentration gradient from high to low. Active transport requires energy. Substances move against a concentration gradient from low to high. Higher concentration Active transport is like trying to get into a crowded club! Lower concentration 3.4 Passive transport: Osmosis 3.4 Passive transport: Facilitated diffusion Lower concentration The diffusion of water is called osmosis. Water will always flow from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration. Higher concentration Higher concentration Large molecules can move through embedded transport proteins via facilitated diffusion. Substances still move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Lower concentration 4

5 8/25/ Active transport requires energy to move substances. Active transport involves moving a substance from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. Moving a substance against its concentration gradient always requires an expenditure of energy. 3.4 Active transport is usually driven by a protein that sits within the membrane. Lower concentration Higher concentration Here, you can see a protein called the sodium-potassium (Na+/K+) pump moving three potassium ions into the cell. 3.4 Cells can also transport substances by fusing a portion of the cell membrane. 3.5 Opening Questions: Where did you get your chromosomes from? Exocytosis is the export from the cell. Endocytosis is the import into the cell. Human cells contain 46 chromosomes. What are at least three things that you know about chromosomes? Can you draw a chromosome? What is it made of? 3.5 Only eukaryotic cells contain organelles surrounded by membranes. The most prominent membrane-enclosed organelle is the nucleus. Every eukaryotic cell (including plant and animal cells) contains a nucleus. 3.5 The nucleus contains most of the cell s DNA stored in chromosomes. The nucleus, surrounded by an envelope and containing DNA, directs the activities of the cell. 5

6 3.5 The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. Protein-lined nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope allow certain molecules, such as RNA, to pass through. 3.5 The nucleus houses the chromosomes. DNA molecules are wrapped around proteins to form fibers called chromatin. Each very long chromatin fiber twists and folds to form a chromosome. 3.5 The nucleus contains a darker area called a nucleolus. The nucleolus is a particular location within the nucleus. This area produces ribosomal RNA (rrna), an important component of a ribosome. 3.6 Opening Questions: Who s in charge? Think of the cell as analogous to a factory. However, instead of producing widgets, the cellular factory produces proteins. What roles might the following organelles play in the cell factory? Plasma membrane Nucleus Ribosomes Mitochondria 3.6 DNA directs a cell s activities through the production of proteins. DNA in the nucleus contains the instructions for making proteins. Proteins are very important molecules in our cells. They are involved in virtually all cell functions. DNA RNA Protein 3.6 Several organelles are involved in protein manufacture. Ribosomes floating or attached to ER Golgi Apparatus Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) 6

7 3.6 Protein production involves two steps: 3.6 After transcription, RNA travels from the nucleus to a ribosome. Ribosomes are where proteins are made. Some ribosomes are bound to the membrane of the rough ER. Other ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm. 1. Transcription in the nucleus results in the production of RNA from DNA. 2. Translation at the ribosomes results in the production of proteins. 3.6 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is filled with membranes. The smooth ER contains enzymes that produce lipids (such as steroid hormones). The rough ER contains ribosomes that produce many kinds of proteins. 3.6 Proteins are finalized and packaged in the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and ships cell products. The Golgi apparatus finishes cell products in vesicles, small bubbles made of membrane. 3.6 Lysosomes are a type of vesicle that contains digestive enzymes. Lysosomes can dissolve large food molecules, old cellular components, or invasive organisms such as bacteria. 3.7 Opening Questions: What if your organelles went missing? What would happen if all the ribosomes in your cells disappeared? What would happen if half of the mitochondria in your cells disappeared? 7

8 3.7 Two organelles help provide energy for the cell. Chloroplasts are found in all plant cells and the cells of some algae. Mitochondria are found in both plant and animal cells (mitochondrion is singular). 3.7 Chloroplasts are the organelle of photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, the energy of sunlight is used to create molecules of sugar. Chloroplasts require a supply of water and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). The sugars produced by photosynthesis provide the energy to power the cell. Within a cell, chloroplasts are visible as green blobs. 3.7 The chloroplast 3.7 Mitochondria are the organelle of cellular respiration. Cellular respiration uses oxygen (O 2 ) to harvest energy from molecules of sugar. The harvested energy is stored as chemical energy in molecules of ATP, which can then be used to power many other cellular processes. 3.7 The mitochondrion 3.8 Opening Questions: Plant cells vs. animal cells List three structures in the plant cell that are not found in animal cells. For each of these structures, explain why it is useful for plant cells, but not for animal cells. 8

9 8/25/ Vacuoles function in the general maintenance of the cell. 3.8 Some cells have moving appendages. Vacuoles are intracellular sacs. Some are for storage, such as for food, nutrients, or pigments. Some pump water out of a cell. Many plant cells have a very large central vacuole. Flagella propel the cell through their whip-like motion. Cilia move in a coordinated backand-forth motion. 3.8 Some cells are supported by a rigid cell wall surrounding the membrane. 3.8 Animal cells maintain their shape with an internal cytoskeleton. Plant, fungus, and some prokaryotic cells have a rigid cell wall. Plants can stand upright in part because their rigid cell walls are made of cellulose. The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that provides mechanical support, anchorage, and reinforcement. The cytoskeleton network can be quickly dismantled and reassembled, providing flexibility. Note: Animal cells do not have a cell wall! 3.8 Animal cells stick together. Animal cells produce a sticky extracellular matrix that helps hold cells together. Cells are held together into a tissue by the extracellular matrix. 9

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