Patterns of evolution
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1 To branch or not to branch Patterns of evolution Chapter 3 Cladogenesis lineages branch into two or more lines Anagenesis evolutionary change in a lineage without branching Anagenesis and Cladogenesis Evolutionary history and classification A taxon (named group of organisms) may be: Monophyletic (e.g. Aves) Polyphyletic Paraphyletic (e.g. Pongidae) Pongidae, a paraphyletic group 1
2 Patterns of evolution From phylogenetic studies, common patterns of evolution have been identified 1. Pre-existing features Features of organisms to not arise de novo (from nothing) Related organisms have homologous characters, but character state may not be homologous Homology may be inferred by common position and structure, as well as embryology 2. Homoplasy is common Types of homoplasy Convergent evolution Parallel evolution Evolutionary reversals Homoplasy indicates adaptiveness of traits Parallel evolution 2
3 Convergent evolution Convergent evolution Evolutionary reversals 3. Rates of character evolution differ Some characters evolve very quickly, e.g. body size in mammals Conservative characters change very little Mosaic evolution is when different characters evolve at different rates within a lineage Provides evidence that evolution happens in a piecemeal fashion, i.e. character by character 3
4 Mosaic evolution 4. Evolution is often gradual Evolution proceeds by small successive changes (gradualism) rather than by large leaps (saltations) Not all evolution may be gradual (will talk about later) 6. Change is form is often correlated with change in function Stipules Terminal leaflets Leaves Petioles 7. Similarity between species changes through ontogeny Von Baer s Law Species are often more similar as embryos than as adults 8. Development underlies some common patterns of morphological evolution A. Individualization B. Heterochrony C. Allometry D. Heterotopy E. Simplification of morphology within clades 4
5 A. Individualization Bodies of many organisms consist of modules that may become distinct - individualization B. Heterochrony Paedomorphosis Heterochrony is an evolutionary change in the timing or rate of developmental events Change in the relative timing of development of somatic features versus reproductive features changes features of organisms Paedomorphosis (e.g. salamander) Peramorphosis (e.g. human brain) 5
6 Peramorphosis Peramorphosis is mostly limited to frontal lobe development and caused: An increase in the area occupied by the frontal lobe (lobe development is extended), which in turn causes An increase in the area occupied by the stomach, which Allowed descendants to exploit a different ecological niche (in this case an increased sedimentation regime). C. Allometry Allometry is the differential rate of growth of different parts of an organism during its development Allometry Allometry can be described by: Log y = log b a log x, where a is the allometric coefficient or relative growth rate If a = 1, then growth is isometric 6
7 Allometry Allometry Suppose that x is body size and that y is the size of some feature that begin to develop at age α and stops growing at age β (positive allometry) Allometry If development is extended by Δβ, then paramorphosis results Allometry If growth is shortened by Δβ (progenesis), then paedomorphosis results Allometry If the growth rate of y is reduced relative to x (neoteny), paedomorphosis results D. Heterotopy Heterotopy is an evolutionary change in the position within an organism at which a phenotypic character is expressed 7
8 Cauliflory Sesamoids E. Simplification of morphology 9. Evolutionary trends Phylogenetic analysis can also document evolutionary trends. i.e., a succession of changes of a character in the same direction, either within a single lineage or in may lineages independently For example in plants, we see trends from: Low to high chromosome number Animal to wind pollination Radial to bilateral symmetry Woody to herbaceous 8
9 10. Adaptive radiation is common Adaptive radiation is the divergent evolution of a lineage within a relatively short time Mammal and angiosperm diversification during Mesozoic and Cenozoic Cichlid fishes in rift lakes of Africa Darwin s Finches on the Galapagos Islands Honeycreepers in Hawaii 9
10 Ferns Conifers Cycads Angiosperms Angiosperms Ferns Conifers Cycads What causes adaptive radiations? 1. Opportunity Colonization of isolated habitats Cuts off gene flow Many new niches available Lack of competition Mass extinction Climate Change 2. Evolutionary innovation Colonization of isolated habitats Mass extinctions Cretaceous Permian Devonian Evolution of land plants includes major innovations Climate change Cretaceous Permian Devonian Why did Conifers replace Ferns and fern allies? 10
11 Why did gymnosperms replace lycophytes, horsetails, & ferns? Seeds evolved by end of Devonian, yet non-seed tracheophytes continued to dominate into Permian What changed to favor Gymnosperms? Carboniferous forest (ca. 330 mya) Lycopsids, Ferns, Horsetails still: Required water for fertilization Have free-living gametophyte generation (no dessication resistant propagule) Rise of the gymnosperms Formation of Pangea dramatically changed continental climate Single landmass, very dry Cold, dry periods Favorable conditions for gymnosperms Ferns have flagellated sperm & free-living gametophytes Gymnosperms & Cycads: wind-dispersed pollen (and first animal-dispersed pollen), retain seed Many organisms possess structures that have no apparent function, but they resemble structures of presumed ancestors. This is the study of 1. the fossil record 2. the molecular record 3. homology 4. development 5. vestigial structures The evolution of different forms in the same lineage when exposed to different selective pressures is called 1. convergence 2. homology 3. phylogeny 4. analogy 5. divergence 29% 14% 7% 7% 43% As a biologist if you were to see a sign describing evolution as just a theory, you would think that 1. evolution is a theory that is supported with a tremendous amount of evidence 2. evolution is just a collection of facts without a central theme and this is not a theory 3. evolution is what Darwin proposed to account for all the changes he observed in the finches so it is a hypothesis of his, not a theory 4. evolution occurred in the past, but it is not occurring in the present, so it cannot be a theory
12 Biological evolution is defined as The inheritance of acquired characteristics proposal was put forward by different selective pressures is called 1. change in the properties of an organism over the course of development. 2. directed change toward some fixed goal. 3. the belief that each organism has an immutable essence. 4. change in the properties of groups of organisms over the course of generations. 5. a completely random biological process Darwin 2. Lamarck 3. Wallace 4. Founder 5. Hardy-Weinberg Structures which are derived from the same body part in a common ancestor but may have different appearances and functions are called In the case of the toothed whales, the fossil record 1. analogous structures 2. homologous structures 3. vestigial structures 4. embryonic structures 5. homozygous structures 2 67% 1. shows they evolved from fish 2. shows they evolved from swimming dinosaurs 3. shows they evolved from a land mammal 4. has fragmentary evidence that cannot be explained 5. has no evidence about how they evolved 8 7% 7% 7% 13% EXAM ON FRIDAY 12
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