Evolution & Natural Selection
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1 Evolution & Natural Selection Chapter 8 Ideas about the earth & its inhabitants were slowly changing In the 1700 & 1800 s, scientists began to overturn long held beliefs and ideas Buffon suggested the earth was closer to 75,000 years old based on estimates on cooling time from a molten state Cuvier found fossils of species no longer living, showing extinction had occurred Lamarck suggested that animals change over time Lyell argued that geological forces were changing the Earth s crust over time Malthus suggested that population size is limited by resources; that more will be born than will survive Darwin, influenced by those above & by his years of data collection while on the Beagle, offered his theory of evolution by natural selection What is evolution? Change over time What is biological evolution? Change in the genetic make up of a population over time 1
2 What does that mean? Genetic makeup = all the genes and their alleles in a population Genetic change = changes in the frequencies of alleles over time (bird beak lab) What causes changes in allele frequencies in a population? (Mechanisms of evolution) Mutation Genetic drift Migration Natural selection Artificial selection Sexual selection Mutation The change in nucleotide sequence of DNA Creates new alleles environmental factors can influence rate of mutation, but do not influence which mutations occur (no mutations on demand) how helpful or harmful the mutation may be is unrelated to whether it happens or not Mutations in somatic cells die with the individual, BUT mutations in the gametes can potentially be passed on to offspring & affect a population s variability 2
3 Genetic drift A random change in allele frequencies due to chance events earthquakes, fires, floods drift is drastic Surviving allele frequencies do not represent the original population bottleneck effect Migration The transfer of alleles from one population to another Allele frequencies change in both populations Natural selection Nature (the environment) selects for or against individuals with certain traits leading to unequal reproductive success Three conditions are necessary for this to occur 1. there must be variation for a particular trait in the population 2. the variation must be inheritable 3. individuals with one version of the trait must produce more offspring than those of the other version 3
4 1. Variation for a trait Variation is an essential component of evolution by natural selection Not limited to physical features; organism may vary in physiological, biochemical & behavioral ways, too Variation for a trait, cont. 2. Heritability The offspring must inherit trait from parent through genes acquired traits (skills or knowledge gained during an organism s lifetime) cannot be passed on to an organism s offspring 4
5 3. Unequal reproductive success Individuals most suited for reproduction in their environment generally leave more offspring than individuals with other traits Observations: more organisms are born than will survive organisms are in a constant struggle to survive some organisms are more likely to overcome struggle & reproduce, passing on their genes Measuring reproductive success Fitness is a measure of reproductive success relative to other individuals the most fit individuals produce the largest # of viable offspring, passing on their genes to the next generation fitness can change over time & across habitats Natural selection, cont. Over time, the traits that lead organisms to have greater reproductive success (be more fit) will increase in frequency in the population while traits that reduce reproductive success will decrease 5
6 Natural selection, cont. Leads to evolutionary adaptation an adaptation is an inherited trait; the specific feature(s) that make an organism more fit adaptation is a process by which organisms become better matched to their environment over generational time Natural selection is NOT a choice. Organisms do not evolve because they want to or need to. Remember what we re talking about? Mechanisms of evolution: Mutation Genetic drift Migration Natural selection Artificial selection Sexual selection 6
7 Artificial selection A type of evolution where people are selecting for traits rather than nature The three conditions required for natural selection to occur are necessary here The results are the same; a change in the frequency of alleles in a population Now also doing it on a molecular level (biotechnology & GMO) Artificial selection in animals Artificial selection in plants: teosinte to get corn 7
8 Sexual selection Individuals with certain characteristics are more likely to get mates over others (Usually) it is a female selecting a mate based on variation of phenotype Sexual selection continued Leads to sexual dimorphism secondary sex characteristics not directly involved in reproduction plumage, manes, antlers, vocalizations Sexual selection FROG COMPUTER DATING. A female European tree frog watches a video, dimmed to simulate a moonlit night, showing a courting male. Offered pairs of videos, females showed a preference for certain male coloration, even though frogs mate at night. 8
9 CHOOSE ME Portraits of courting male frogs come from paired videos that researchers showed females to test for preferences in male coloration: paler vs. redder vocal sacs (top) and darker body stripe vs. hardly any stripe (below). March 24, 2009: Why no perfect organisms? Selection is not goal oriented a trait favorable in one environment may be useless or detrimental in another Selection can only act on existing variations new alleles cannot arise on demand Environments change some adaptations may now be selected against Adaptations are compromises each organism must do many things There may be multiple alleles for a trait each causing an individual to have the same fitness 9
10 Remember what a theory is? To a scientist, a theory is an explanation that is very broad in scope, explains a great diversity of observations, and is supported by a large body of evidence The theory of evolution by natural selection explains a great diversity of observations & is supported by a large body of evidence Evidence of evolution Fossil record Biogeography Comparative anatomy & embryology Molecular biology Laboratory & field experiments Fossil record Documents differences between past & present organisms & the fact many species have become extinct Incomplete soft parts don t fossilize not all organisms lived in areas that favored fossilization rocks get destroyed, damaging fossils not all fossils will be found 10
11 Biogeography Patterns in the geographic distribution of living organisms around the world Species often more closely resemble other species that live less than 100 miles away but in radically different habitats than they do to species farther away in similar habitats Hawaiian honeycreepers; nearly every bird is a type of modified honeycreeper Australian marsupials; they are more closely related to each other than to similar placental counterparts Comparative anatomy Anatomical similarities between species give signs of common ancestry Homologous structures: structurally similar features that have different functions Vestigial organs: structures of marginal or no importance to the organism; remnants of important structures in ancestors appendix in humans pelvic bones in whales molars in vampire bats Comparative embryology Common embryonic development indicate the organisms share a common ancestor from which all have been modified 11
12 Molecular biology Since all living things share the same genetic code, this strongly suggests that all living organisms are related The more similar sequences between (or within) species, the more closely related the two organisms ex. siblings DNA sequences are more similar than unrelated organisms of the same species Laboratory & field experiments By choosing organisms with quick generation times/short life spans, it is possible to see evolution in action grass on golf course antibiotic resistant bacteria starvation resistant fruit flies guppies in Venezuela etc. 12
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