CONTENTS. Physics Chemistry Motion Work, Energy and Power Gravitation Properties of Fluid 22-23

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2 CONTENTS Physics Motion Work, Energy and Power Gravitation Properties of Fluid Heat Wave Sound Light Electricity and Magnetism Modern Physics Chemistry Matter Atoms and Molecules Periodic Table Classification Chemical bonding Oxidation and Reduction Acids, Bases and Salts Metals and Non-metals Carbon and its Compounds Chemistry in Everyday Life

3 Biology Classification of Living Organisms Study of Cell-Cytology Plants Photosynthesis Systems of Human Body Genetics Nutrition Human Diseases Previous Years' Upsc Questions Physics Chemistry Biology

4 Chapter-21 STUDY OF CELL-CYTOLOGY The human body is made up of several small units called cells. The Cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. These cells are very minute and cannot be seen with our naked eyes. They can be observed only through a scientific instrument called microscope. Apart from human beings, other organisms like plants and animals are also composed of cells. It was Robert Hooke, who saw many small identical hexagonal chambers and he named these chambers cells in Robert Brown was another scientist who studied the structure of a cell. He invented an advanced microscope with a higher degree of magnification through which very small objects could be viewed with greater clarity. With the help of that microscope, he examined the cell and found that there were nearly twelve to thirteen cell organelles, which are involved in various specified tasks. Characteristics of Cell Cells are too small with size ranging from 1 to 100 micrometres. Hence, the study of cells, also called cell biology, would not have been possible without the invention of the microscope. Cells contain genetic material such as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), the genetic information necessary for directing cellular activities. These DNA and RNA molecules are known as nucleic acids. Cells contain structures called organelles which carry out specific functions and have wide range of responsibilities within a cell that include everything from providing energy to producing hormones and enzymes. Different types of cells reproduce through different methods. For example, prokaryotic cells replicate by a process called binary fission in which two identical cells are derived from a single cell. Eukaryotic cells are capable of reproducing asexually through mitosis and also sexually through a process called meiosis. Groups of similar cells form tissues with both shared structure and function. Different types of tissues can also be arranged together to form organs. Groups of organs can in turn form organ systems. Cells within the human body have varying life spans from a few days to a year, based on the type and function of the cell. For example - cells in the digestive system live for few days, while some immune system cells can live for up to six weeks. Pancreatic cells can live for as long as a year. 111

5 General Science Classification of Cells Cells are of two types, eukaryotic- which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic- which do not contain nucleus. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular. Prokaryotic cells Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus. Prokaryotes include two of the three domains of life, bacteria and archaea. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid. Most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter. Bacteria and archaeans are examples of prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-bound organelles (compartments) in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus, an organelle that houses the cell s DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means true kernel (nucleus). Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are examples of eukaryotic cells. Animal Cell Components of an animal cell 112 Fig: Structure of an Animal Cell

6 Study of Cell-Cytology Plasma membrane: The plasma membrane, envelops the cell and gives shape to the cell. It act as a guard and controls the entry and exit of materials. It is a semi-permeable barrier, allowing only a few molecules to move across it. Protoplasm: It is a colloid, and found inside the plasma membrane. It has two components of the cell namely the cytoplasm and the nucleus. J.E. Purkinjee coined the term protoplasm. Proto means first and plasma means colloid. Cytoplasm: It is the fluid matrix that fills the cell and is located in between the plasma membrane and the nucleus and is made up of carbohydrates and proteins. Organelles and lipid droplets are present inside the cytoplasm. Nucleus: It is the control centre of the cell, but it need not be present at the centre and is spherical in shape. It has the nucleoplasm, the nucleolus and the chromatin reticulum and is enclosed by a porous membrane known as the nuclear membrane. Nucleus is the house for most of the cells genetic material- the DNA and RNA. It carries the genetic characters from generation to generation. Fig: Nucleus Mitochondria (singular Mitochondrion): They are the main energy source of the cell and are involved in cell respiration. They help in the oxidation of food materials that we eat. It is spherical or rod shaped organelle. It is an organelle which is independent as it has its own hereditary material. They do not rest and are also known as the Powerhouses of the cell because energy(atp) is created here. Fig: Mitochondrion 113

7 General Science Golgi bodies: Golgi bodies are the packaging center of the cell and are tubular structures. They are involved in the secretion of digestive enzymes and the formation of lysosomes. They separate proteins from the ingested food and give strength to the cells and the body. In plant cells, they are known as Dictyosomes. Fig: Golgi Bodies Endoplasmic reticulum: They help in transportation of materials from one part of the cell to another. It transports molecules that need certain changes and also molecules to their destination. They are of two types- rough endoplasmic reticulum which have ribosomes and smooth endoplasmic reticulum which do not have ribosomes. Fig: Endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes: They are the granular structures and are called the Protein factories of the cell. It is the site for protein synthesis where the translation of the RNA takes place. As protein synthesis is very important to the cell, ribosomes are found in large number in all cells.ribosomes are found freely suspended in the cytoplasm and also are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. 114

8 Study of Cell-Cytology Fig: Ribosomes Lysosomes: They are spherical yellow coloured bodies and help in cell protection by destroying the pathogens that enters the cell. Hence they are called the Suicidal bags of the cell. In addition to this, they help in cell digestion which have digestive enzymes that helps in breakdown of the waste molecules and also helps in detoxification of the cell. Fig: Lysosome Centrosome: They are present only in the animal cell and found near the nucleus and hence is known as the microtubule organizing center of the cell. They have centrioles and play an important role in cell division i.e., formation of new cells. Fig: Centrosome Vacuoles: They are light blue in colour and appear like bubbles which store cell sap and maintain intracellular pressure. 115

9 General Science Plant cell Fig: Structure of a Plant Cell The centrosome is absent in the plant cell. Plants are more rigid than animals due to the presence of the cell wall. They have plastids and also larger vacuoles. Cell wall: It is an outer layer, which gives shape to the cell. It is made up of cellulose. Its function is to protect the inner organelles and to give shape to the cell. Plastids: These organelles are found only in plant cells. They contain pigments. Based on the pigments, they are classified into three types. Type Pigment Functions Chloroplast Chlorophyll - green pigment gives green colour to the stem and leaves Chromoplast Carotene - orange pigment Xanthophyll - yellow pigment gives colour to flowers and fruits Leucoplast No pigments - colourless found in roots and underground stems Similarities between animal cell and plant cell Animal cells and plant cells are similar in that they are both eukaryotic cells. These cells have a true nucleus, which houses DNA and is separated from other cellular structures by a nuclear membrane. Both of these cell types have similar processes for reproduction, which include mitosis and meiosis. Animal and plant cells obtain the energy they need to grow and maintain normal cellular function through the process of cellular respiration. Both of these cell types also contain cell structures known as organelles, which are specialized to perform functions necessary for normal cellular operation. 116

10 Study of Cell-Cytology Animal and plant cells have some of the same cell components in common including a nucleus, Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton, and cell (plasma) membrane. While animal and plant cells have many common characteristics, they are also different in many ways. Differences between Animal Cells and Plant Cells Size: Animal cells are generally smaller than plant cells. Animal cells range from 10 to 30 micrometers in length, while plant cells range from 10 and 100 micrometers in length. Shape: Animal cells come in various sizes and tend to have round or irregular shapes. Plant cells are more similar in size and are typically rectangular or cube shaped. Energy Storage: Animals cells store energy in the form of the complex carbohydrate glycogen. Plant cells store energy as starch. Proteins: Of the 20 amino acids needed to produce proteins, only 10 can be produced naturally in animal cells. The other so-called essential amino acids must be acquired through diet. Plants are capable of synthesizing all 20 amino acids. Differentiation: In animal cells, only stem cells are capable of converting to other cell types. Most plant cell types are capable of differentiation. Growth: Animal cells increase in size by increasing in cell numbers. Plant cells mainly increase cell size by becoming larger. They grow by absorbing more water into the central vacuole. Cell Wall: Animal cells do not have a cell wall but have a cell membrane. Plant cells have a cell wall composed of cellulose as well as a cell membrane. Centrioles: Animal cells contain these cylindrical structures that organize the assembly of microtubules during cell division. Plant cells do not typically contain centrioles. Cilia: Cilia are found in animal cells but not usually in plant cells. Cilia are microtubules that aid in cellular locomotion. Cytokinesis: Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm during cell division, occurs in animal cells when a cleavage furrow forms that pinches the cell membrane in half. In plant cell cytokinesis, a cell plate is constructed that divides the cell. Glyoxysomes: These structures are not found in animal cells, but are present in plant cells. Glyoxysomes help to degrade lipids, particularly in germinating seeds, for the production of sugar. Lysosomes: Animal cells possess lysosomes which contain enzymes that digest cellular macromolecules. Plant cells rarely contain lysosomes as the plant vacuole handles molecule degradation. Plastids: Animal cells do not have plastids. Plant cells contain plastids such as chloroplasts, which are needed for photosynthesis. Plasmodesmata: Animal cells do not have plasmodesmata. Plant cells have plasmodesmata, which are pores between plant cell walls that allow molecules and communication signals to pass between individual plant cells. Vacuole: Animal cells may have many small vacuoles. Plant cells have a large central vacuole that can occupy up to 90% of the cell s volume. 117

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