AP Chemistry Chapter 2
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1 AP Chemistry Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules & Ions
2 The Atomic Theory of Maer > Democritus ( BC) > Greek philosopher > Thought that material was made up of ny indivisible parcles called atomos > Aristotle and Plato formulated idea that there can be no ulmately indivisible parcles of maer > Atomic view faded
3 English school teacher Studied meteorology John Dalton Made observaons of atmospheric gases that led to the development of his atomic theory during the period of
4 Dalton s Atomic Theory Elements are composed of extremely small parcles called atoms. All atoms of a given element are idencal to each other. Atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.
5 Dalton s Theory Connued Atoms of one element are not changed into other elements by chemical reacons. Atoms are not created or destroyed in chemical reacons. Compounds are formed when the atoms of one element combine with atoms of another element. A given compound always has the same relave number and kind of atom.
6 Atoms are the smallest part of an element that has the properes of the element Law of constant composion: In a compound the relave numbers and types of atoms are constant Law of conservaon of mass: In a chemical reacon, the masses of the products must be equal to the masses of the reactants
7 Dalton s Theory Led To Law of Mulple Proporons: If two elements A and B form more than one compound, the masses of B that can combine with A are in the rao of small whole numbers For example: Water (H2O) and Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) In water 8.0 g of oxygen combines with 1.0 grams of hydrogen In hydrogen peroxide 16.0 grams of oxygen combines with 2.0 grams of hydrogen
8 Discovery of Atomic We know now that Structure atoms are composed of subatomic parcles The three main subatomic parcles that chemists are concerned with are the proton, neutron, and electron Parcles with the same charge will repel one another while parcles with opposite charges will be aracted to one another
9 JJ Thomson (late 1800 s) Experimented with a cathode ray tube Concluded that cathode rays are streams of negavely charged parcles Credited with the discovery of the electron Calculated charge to mass rao of electron: 1.76 x 108 Coulombs per gram Developed Plum Pudding Model of the atom
10 Roger Millikan ( ) Oil drop experiment Was able to deduce the charge of the electron: x C Used Thomson s charge to mass rao to calculate the mass of the electron: 9.10 x g
11 Henri Becquerel (1852 Discovered radiaon 1908) emied from a uranium compound Marie and Pierre Curie experimented to isolate the radioacve components of the compound Further studies revealed three types of radiaon: alpha, beta, and gamma
12 Ernest Rutherford Showed that alpha and beta radiaon consists of fast moving parcles Beta parcle are high speed electrons (radioacve equivalent of cathode rays) Alpha parcles have a charge of 2+ and Beta have a charge of 1 Gamma radiaon is high energy radiaon similar to x rays. It does not consist of parcles and does not carry a charge.
13 The Nuclear Model of the > Rutherford s gold Atom foil experiment revealed: > Atom is mostly empty space > Atom contains a small, dense, posively charged center called the nucleus
14 Subatomic Parcles Proton has charge of x C Electron has charge of x C x C is called the electronic charge We express charges of atomic and subatomic parcles as mulples of this number proton is 1+ and electron is 1 Every atom has an equal number of protons and electrons and therefore has no electric charge
15 Masses of Atoms Atoms have very small masses and expressing the masses in grams is not useful so we use atomic mass units (amu) 1 amu = x10 24 grams Proton mass = amu Neutron mass = amu Electron mass = x 10 4 amu
16 The Size of Atoms Atoms are very small (most have diameters between 1 x and 5 x meters. This would be 100 and 500 pm Angstroms are another unit oen used for atomic sizes 1 angstrom = meters The nucleus is very small compared to the rest of the atom (on the order of 10 4 angstroms)
17 Sample Exercise 2.1 (page 44) The diameter of a U.S. penny is 19 mm. The diameter o a silver atom, by comparison is only 2.88 angstroms. How many silver atoms could be arranged side by side i a straight line across the diameter of a penny?
18 Aug 26 12:45 PM
19 Atomic Numbers Number of protons in an atom Is unique for every element Because the atom has no electric charge, this is also the number of electrons in a neutral atom
20 Mass Number Mass number refers to the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom Mass number Symbol Atomic number
21 Sample Exercise 2.2 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in (a) an atom of 197Au; (b) an atom of stronum 90?
22 Aug 26 12:55 PM
23 Sample Exercise 2.3 Magnesium has three isotopes, with mass numbers of 24, 25, and 26. (a) Write the complete chemical symbo (superscript and subscript) for each of them (b) How many neutrons are in an atom of each isotope?
24 Isotopes Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons Carbon 12 vs. Carbon 14
25 Determining the Mass of an Element Mass Spectrometry Video
26 Average Atomic Masses Most elements exist as mixtures of isotopes Average atomic mass is determined using masses of various isotopes and their relave abundances Average atomic mass is also called atomic weight
27 Sample Exercise 2.4 Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.78% 35Cl, which has an atomic mass of amu, and 24.22% 37Cl, which has an atomic mass of amu. Calculate th average atomic mass (that is, the atomic weight) of chlorine.
28 Aug 26 1:10 PM
29 The Periodic Table Tool for chemists to organize and remember chemical facts Elements are arranged by increasing atomic number with elements that have similar properes placed in vercal columns (called groups or families) Horizontal rows are called periods
30 Names of Some Groups Group 1 (1A) Alkali metals Group 2 (2A) Alkaline earth metals Group 16 (6A) Chalcogens Group 17 (7A) Halogens Group 18 (8A) Noble gases
31 Metals are on the le (except hydrogen) Nonmetal are on the right Metalloids lie along the line and exhibit properes that are between those of metals and nonmetals
32 Sample Exercise 2.5 Which two of the following elements would you expect to show the greatest similarity in chemical an physical properes: B, Ca, F, He, Mg, P?
33 Aug 27 10:13 AM
34 Molecules A molecule is an assembly of two or more atoms ghtly bound together Chemical formula shows the number and types of atoms present in a molecule Diatomic molecules are made up of two atoms Elements that exist as diatomic molecules: Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine
35 Molecular Compounds Compounds composed of molecules Contain more than one type of atom (different elements) Most molecular compounds will contain only nonmetal atoms
36 Molecular & Empirical Formulas Formulas that indicate the actual numbers and types of atoms in a compound are molecular formulas. Formulas that give only the relave number of atoms of each type are called empirical formulas. For many substances the molecular and empirical formulas are the same
37 Sample Exercise 2.6 Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules: (a) glucose, a substance also known as either blood sugar or dextrose, whose molecular formula is C6H12O6 (b) nitrous oxide, a substance used as an anesthec and commonly called laughing gas, whose molecular formula is N2O
38 Aug 27 10:17 AM
39 Picturing Molecules Structural formula: shows which atoms are aached to which within the molecule Perspecve drawing: gives some sense of three dimensional shape of the molecule. Solid lines represent bonds in the plane of the paper, the solid wedge is a bond that extends out of the paper and the doed line is a bond behind the paper. Ball and sck model: atoms as spheres and bonds as scks. Shows the angles of the bonds Space filling model: shows what molecule would look like if the atoms were scaled up in size
40 Ions Atom that has a charge due to loss or gain of electrons Caons: posively charged ion resulng from loss of electrons Anions: negavely charged ion resulng from gain of electrons In general, metal atoms will lose electron and nonmetal atoms will gain electrons
41 Polyatomic Ions Atoms bonded as in a molecule, but have an overall electric charge
42 Predicng Charges of Ions Group 1 1+ Group 2 2+ Group 17 1 Group 16 2 Nitrogen 3 Aluminum 3+
43 Sample Exercise 2.7 Give the chemical symbol, including mass number, for each of the following ions: (a) the ion with 22 protons, 26 neutrons, and 19 electrons; (b) the ion of sulfur that has 16 neutrons and 18 electrons
44 Aug 27 10:29 AM
45 Sample Exercise 2.8 Predict the charge expected for the most stable ion of barium and for the most stable ion of oxygen.
46 Aug 27 10:31 AM
47 Ionic Compounds Contain both posively and negavely charged ions Generally combinaons of metals and nonmetals Combine so that overall electric charge is neutral
48 Sample Exercise 2.9 Which of the following compounds would you expect to be ionic: N2O, Na2O, CaCl2, SF4?
49 Sample Exercise 2.10 What are the empirical formulas of the compounds formed by (a) Al3+ and Cl (b) Al3+ and O2 (c) Mg2+ and NO3?
50 Naming Caons Caons formed from metals have the same name as the metal If a metal can have more than one ionic charge, the charge is indicated by a Roman numeral in parentheses following the name of the metal Somemes the ous or ic suffix is added to the Lan name to indicate charge Caons formed from nonmetals will end with ium suffix
51 Naming Anions The names of monatomic anions are formed by replacing the ending of the name of the element with ide Polyatomic ions containing oxygen (oxyanions) have names ending with ate or ite Anions derived by adding H+ to an oxyanion are named by adding as a prefix the word hydrogen or dihydrogen as appropriate
52 Ionic Compounds Named by pung the name of caon with the name of the anion
53 Acids Acids are hydrogen containing compounds An acid will consist of an anion with enough hydrogen ions to balance or neutralize it Acids with anions whose name ends with ide are named by changing the ide to ic, adding the prefix hydro and the word acid Acids with anions whose names end with ate or ite are named by changing the ending to ic or ous and adding the word acid
54 Aug 27 10:47 AM
55 Aug 27 10:49 AM
56 Binary Molecular Compounds The name of the element farther to the le on the periodic table is usually wrien first (excepon is oxygen which is always wrien last except when bonded with fluorine) If both are in the same group, the one with the higher atomic number is named first The name of the second element is given an ide ending Greek prefixes are used to indicate numbers of atoms (except mono is not used for the first element)
57 Prefixes for Binary Molecular Compounds: 1 mono 2 di 3 tri 4 tetra 5 penta 6 hexa 7 hepta 8 octa 9 nona 10 deca
58 Sample Exercise 2.12 Name the following compounds: (a) K2SO4 (b) Ba(OH) 2 (c) FeCl3
59 Sample Exercise 2.13 Write the chemical formulas for the following compounds: (a) potassium sulfide (b) calcium hydrogen carbonate (c) nickel (II) perchlorate
60 Sample Exercise 2.14 Name the following acids: (a) HCN (b) HNO3 (c) H2SO4 (d) H2SO3
61 Sample Exercise 2.15 Name the following compounds: (a) SO2 (b) PCl5 (c) N2O3
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