Impairment of Shooting Performance by Background Complexity and Motion
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1 Impairment of Shooting Performance by Background Complexity and Motion Loïc Caroux, Ludovic Le Bigot, Nicolas Vibert To cite this version: Loïc Caroux, Ludovic Le Bigot, Nicolas Vibert. Impairment of Shooting Performance by Background Complexity and Motion. Experimental Psychology, Hogrefe, 2015, 62 2), pp < / /a000277>. <hal > HAL Id: hal Submitted on 19 Dec 2014 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.
2 PRE$PRINT$ Caroux,L.,LeBigot,L.,&Vibert,N.inpress).Impairmentofshootingperformanceby backgroundcomplexityandmotion.experimental,psychology.doi: /1618j3169/a This,article,may,not,exactly,replicate,the,final,version,published,in,Experimental,Psychology,, 2014,by,Hogrefe,Publishing.,It,is,not,the,version,of,record,and,is,therefore,not,suitable,for,citation., Title: Impairmentofshootingperformancebybackgroundcomplexityandmotion Authors: LoïcCAROUX,LudovicLEBIGOT,NicolasVIBERT Affiliation: CentredeRecherchessurlaCognitionetl ApprentissageCeRCA) UMR7295 UniversityofPoitiers/UniversityofTours/CNRS France LoïcCarouxiscurrentlyaffiliatedtoINRIABordeauxSudWOuest,Talence,France) Correspondingauthor: LoïcCaroux INRIABordeauxSudWOuest EquipePhoenix 200avenuedelaVieilleTour 33405TalenceCedex France 1
3 Abstract Inmanyvisualdisplayssuchasvirtualenvironments,humantasksinvolveobjectssuperimposedon bothcomplexandmovingbackgrounds.however,moststudiesinvestigatedtheinfluenceof backgroundcomplexityorbackgroundmotioninisolation.twoexperimentsweredesignedto investigatethejointinfluencesofbackgroundcomplexityandlateralmotiononasimpleshooting tasktypicalofvideogames.participantshadtoperformthetaskonthemovingandstaticversionsof backgroundsofthreelevelsofcomplexity,whiletheireyemovementswererecorded.the backgroundsdisplayedeitheranabstractexperiment1)oranaturalisticexperiment2)virtual environment.theresultsshowedthatperformancewasimpairedbybackgroundmotioninboth experiments.theeffectsofmotionandcomplexitywereadditivefortheabstractbackgroundand multiplicativeforthenaturalisticbackground.eyemovementrecordingsshowedthatperformance impairmentsreflectedatleastinparttheimpactofthebackgroundvisualfeaturesongazecontrol. Keywords Eyemovements;LowWlevelvisualfeatures;Virtualenvironments;Visualperception 2
4 1. Introduction$ Invirtualenvironments,mosttasksinvolvetheuseofobjectsthataresuperimposedona background.ingeneral,thesebackgroundsarecomplexanddynamicasinnaturalscenes.theyare composedofvariousvisualinformatione.g.,buildinginsides,landscapes)andcanmoveindifferent wayse.g.,linearorcircularmotion)inconnectionwiththetaskinwhichpeopleareengagede.g., Riecke,SchulteWPelkum,Avraamides,VonDerHeyde,&Bülthoff,2006;Trutoiu,Mohler,SchulteW Pelkum,&Bülthoff,2009). Asdetailedbelow,manystudieshaveshownthatbackgroundcomplexitye.g.,Chen&Hegdé,2012; Jie&Clark,2008;Wolfe,Oliva,Horowitz,Butcher,&Bompas,2002)ormotione.g.,Caroux,LeBigot, &Vibert,2013;Harrison,Thompson,&Sanderson,2010;Honda,2001;Kaminiarz,Krekelberg,& Bremmer,2007;Tozzi,Morrone,&Burr,2007)couldimpairpeople sperformanceinvarioustasks andsituations.ingeneral,theimpairmentcanbeexplainedbythepeople sgazebehavior,which reflectsattentionalprocessese.g.,henderson,chanceaux,&smith,2009;ilg,1997).however,few studiesinvestigatedthejointeffectsofbackgroundmotionandcomplexity.theobjectiveofthe presentexperimentswastofillthisgapbyinvestigatingthejointinfluencesofbackground complexityandbackgroundmotiononperformanceandgazebehaviorinavirtualenvironment Influence$of$background$complexity$on$performance$and$gaze$ behavior$ ThecomplexityofavisualsceneisusuallycharacterizedbylowWlevelvisualfeatures.Toqualifythe complexityofavisualscene,theconceptof clutter canbeusede.g.,asher,tolhurst,troscianko,& Gilchrist,2013;Beck,Lohrenz,&Trafton,2010;Neider&Zelinsky,2011;Wolfeetal.,2002).The clutterrepresentsthedensityofvisualinformationinascene.whentheclutterofavisualsceneis high,thesceneincludesagreatdensityofvariouscolororluminancecontrasts.whentheclutteris 3
5 low,onlyfewcontrastsarevisibleinthescene.thecomplexityofavisualscenehasanimpacton people sperformanceandassociatedgazebehaviorhendersonetal.,2009)invarioustasks,suchas visualsearche.g.,wolfeetal.,2002)orvideogameshootingtasksjie&clark,2008). Wolfeetal.2002)studiedvisualsearchincomplexvisualenvironmentsandproposedamodel basedonthe guidedsearch modelwolfe,1994).searchingforaniteminacomplexvisualscene canbeseparatedintwostages:theprewattentivestageandtheselectivestage.inthefirststage, parallelprocessingofvisualinformationisusedtoguidethedeploymentofattention,andcandidate targetsaresegmentedfromthebackground.inthesecondstage,attentionisorientedtowardsthe prewselecteditems,whichareprocessedfurthertoidentifythetarget.wolfeetal.2002)showed thatthemorecomplexthescenewas,themoreimperfecttheprewattentivesegmentationwas.in addition,thedurationofprocessingofprewselecteditemsdependedonthequalityoftheseparation ofitemsfromthebackground.hence,themorecomplexthevisualenvironmentwas,thelowerthe observer sperformancewasandtheslowertheobserversweretodetectthetarget.similarly,jie andclark2008)studiedtheeffectofbackgroundcomplexityontheperceptionofsuperimposed itemsinashootingtask.participantshadtodetecttargetsthatappearedrandomlyonastationary complexpicture,andtoshootthemasrapidlyaspossible.theauthorsshowedthatperformance timetoshoottargets)waslowerwhenthelocalclutteraroundthetargetwashigher. Thetimetoprocessadisplaycanalsobeassessedbyanalyzingobservers eyemovementsfora review,seerayner,2009).forexample,thedurationofsearchers eyefixationsisoftenusedto quantifytheamountofattentionalresourcesrequiredtoprocessvisualitemsintheenvironment. Hendersonetal.2009)showedthatinarealworldscene,themorecomplexthescenewas,the higherthemeandurationofeyefixationswas.thiswascoherentwithwolfeetal. s2002)findings aboutthetimeneededtodetectthetargetduringavisualsearchtaskperformedonacomplex background.thisreflectedthedifficultyfortheobservertoextractusefulinformationfromthelocal 4
6 visual noise.hence,themeandurationofeyefixationsisanindicatorofthesearchefficiency withinacomplexscene Influence$of$background$motion$on$gaze$behavior$and$ performance$ Oneofthebestknowneffectsofmovingbackgroundsinnaturalscenesorvirtualenvironmentsis theoptokineticnystagmusokn)triggeredbylargewscalemotionsofthevisualsurroundingse.g., Kim&Palmisano,2010;Rieckeetal.,2006).TheOKNisareflexive,conjugatemovementofboth eyesinwhichtwophasesalternate:theslowphasemovestheeyesinthedirectionofbackground motion,ideallyatthesamevelocity,whereasthefastphaseregularlybringsbacktheeyesinthe oppositedirectionilg,1997;waespe&schwarz,1987).theslowphaseoftheoknisa compensatoryeyemovementthatallowstheobservertoautomaticallykeepvisualinputstableon theretina.eventhoughtheslowandfastphasestendtocompensateeachother,theaveragegaze orientationisgenerallydivertedtowardswherethemovingscenecomesfrom,atleastwhenthe observerispassivelylookingatthesceneilg,1997).notethatanysingle,stationaryfixationpoint presentedontopofthemovingbackgroundcanbeusedbyobserverstovoluntarilycanceltheokn Ilg,1997). TheOKNhasbehavioralimplicationsforactivitiesperformedonmovingvisualbackgrounds.For example,theoknhasnegativeeffectsonobservers performanceinperceptivetasks.kaminiarzet al.2007)andtozzietal.2007)studiedtheimpactofoknonparticipants performanceinatarget localizationtask.participantshadtolocalizeabrieflyflashedtargetdisplayedonalaterallymoving, patternedbackground.theauthorsshowedthatvariouserrorsoflocalizationwereobservedduring OKNphases.Carouxetal.2013)studiedtheeffectofbackgroundmotionontheperceptionof superimposeditemsduringashootingtask.participantshadtodetecttargetsthatappeared randomlyonpatternedbackgrounds,andtoshootthemasrapidlyaspossible.theyshowedthat 5
7 performancetimetoshoottargets)waslowerwhenthebackgroundwaslaterallymovingthan whenitwasstationary.similarly,harrisonetal.2010)demonstratedthatbackgroundmotion decreasedperformanceinasimpletaskinvolvingtheintegrationofbriefauditoryandvisualsignals. ThevisualimagewasdisplayedonaheadWmounteddisplayandthebackgroundwastherealworld. Whentheparticipantswalkedorwhenthewallssurroundingtheparticipantsmoved,the performancewaslowerthanwhentheparticipantssatorwhenthewallswerestationary.insum, movingartificialorrealworldbackgroundsdooftendecreaseperformanceinsimpletaskssuchas targetlocalizationortargetshootingtasks The$present$study$ Thepresentstudyaimedatinvestigatingthejointinfluencesofbackgroundlateralmotionandvisual complexityonasimpleshootingtasksuchaswhatcanbefoundinvideogames.thegoalofthe shootingtaskusedintheexperimentswastoaimandshootasfastaspossibleatdifferentvisual targetsindicatedbyauditorycluestoobtainthebestscorepossible.thefirsthypothesiswasthatthe performanceislowerwhenthebackgroundisvisuallycomplexthanwhenitislesscomplexjie& Clark,2008;Wolfeetal.,2002).Becausepreviousstudiesshowedthatbackgroundmotionalso impairedperformanceintargetdetectiontaskscarouxetal.,2013;harrisonetal.,2010;kaminiarz etal.,2007;tozzietal.,2007),theperformanceimpairmentinducedbyvisualcomplexityshould interactwiththeimpairmentcausedbybackgroundmotion.thus,thesecondhypothesiswasthat theperformanceismoreimpairedbybackgroundcomplexitywhenthebackgroundismovingthan whenitisstatic.thesehypothesesweretestedintwosimilarexperiments.theonlydifference betweentheexperimentswasthenatureofthevisualelementsusedtodesignthebackground.the findingswereexpectedtobethesamewhateverthebackgroundvisualdisplay. 6
8 2. Experiment$1$ 2.1. Method$ Participants$ TwentyWtwovolunteers16women,6men)tookpartintheexperiment.Theiraverageagewas19.9 yearssd=1.8)andtheiraveragelengthofschooling13.6yearssd=1.4).allparticipantswere nativefrenchspeakersandhadnormalorcorrectedwtownormalvision Apparatus$ AnonWinvasive,headWfree TobiiT120 eyewtrackerthatlookedlikea17 TFTcomputerscreen1280 x1024pixelsresolution)wasusedtomimicasmuchaspossiblenaturalinteractionwithavirtual environment.theeyetrackerwascontrolledviaacomputer,whichcollectedthedataandranthe taskprogram.gazepositionswereobtainedata120hzfrequencywithanaverageprecisionof0.5 degreeofvisualangleabout5mmonthescreen).becausethelaterallymovingbackgroundsusedin theexperimentsmovedleftwardsatabout12deg/sseebelow),thedatamayincludeoknslow phasesduringwhichtheacquisitionofinformationisstillongoingeventhoughtheobserver sgazeis movingrightwardsatthesamevelocity.hence,eyefixationsandsaccadesweredetectedusing velocitywbaseddetectionalgorithmsfromthe GazeAlyze softwareberger,winkels,lischke,& Höppner,2012).Fixationsweredefinedasanyperiodwheregazevelocitywaslessthan14deg/sfor atleast60ms.saccadesweredefinedasanyperiodwheregazevelocitywentover30deg/sformore than35ms.aspeakerthatwaslocatedinfrontofparticipantswithoutbiasofspatiallocation)was usedtodisplaysounds. 7
9 Material$ Thematerialwascreatedwith AdobeDirector11 software.threedifferentbackgroundsofvarious visualcomplexitiesweredesignedfigure1).theywereextractedfromthevideogame Childof Eden Ubisoft,2011)andwerecomposedofamainlygreenneutralpatternmainHSVcolorscale: Hue=120,Saturation=100,Value=10to70)scatteredwithabstractobjectsHSV:120,50W100,40W 100).Thecomplexitywasdeterminedaccordingtotheproportionofthebackgroundcoveredbythe objects,whichrepresentedtheclutter.thefirstversiononlyshowedtheneutralpatternnoclutter), thesecondoneshowedtheneutralpatternwithobjectscovering25%ofitssurfacelowclutter),and inthethirdonetheobjectscovered50%ofthebackgroundsurfacehighclutter).asstatedabove, whenthebackgroundwaslaterallymoving,itmovedleftwardsataspeedof121mm/sabout12 deg/s).thetargetandthedistractoroftheshootingtaskweredrawingsofacreature.fourcreature versionswereused.thecreaturecouldbebluehsv:228,74,25w84)orredhsv:7,74,25w84),and small85x66pixels,22x17mm,2,2x1,7degrees)orlarge85x99pixels,22x26mm,2.2x2.6degrees). Thecursorwasarepresentationofacrosshairof114pixelsdiameter30mm,3degrees).Six auditoryclueswererecordedwithamalenaturalvoice.theseclueswere left, right, blue, red, large and small gauche, droite, bleu, rouge, grand and petit infrench).their durationwas0.5second. [Figure1nearhere] Design$and$procedure$ Thebackgroundcomplexityno,loworhighclutter)andmotionpresenceorabsence)were manipulatedwithinwparticipants. 8
10 Ashootingtaskwasused.Atthebeginningofeachtrial,thebackgroundwasdisplayedandanempty blacksquareof74mmsideabout7.4deg)wastransientlysuperimposedatthecentreofthescreen for1secondtoorienttheparticipant sgazetowardsthecentreofthedisplaywithoutcancellingthe effectsofbackgroundmotionsuchastheokn.participantswereinstructedtokeeptheirgazeas muchaspossiblewithinthesquare.theauditorycluewasdisplayedatthesametimethanthe square.thecluecouldbealocationclue left or right ),acolorclue blue or red )orasizeclue large or small ).Thetarget,thedistractorandthecursorappearedonthescreenallonthesame, randomhorizontalline.thecursorwasalwaysonthecentralverticalaxisofthescreen,whereasthe targetwasdisplayedrandomlyontherightorleftsideofthescreen.thehorizontalcoordinateof appearanceofthetargetbetweenthecursorandthescreenside)wasalsorandomlydetermined. Thedistractorwaslocatedattheexactoppositeofthetargetontheothersideofthescreencentral verticalaxis.thesizeandcolorofthedistractordifferedfromthetargetonlyonthevisualfeature thatcorrespondedtothenatureoftheclue.forexample,ifthecluewas red,thetargetwas necessarilyredbutcouldbelargeorsmall.thedistractorwasoftheoppositecolorhereblue)but hadthesamesizeasthetarget.participantshadtoaimatthetargetwiththehelpofthekeyboard buttons leftarrow and rightarrow,andtoshootatitbypushingthe space bar.participants wereabletomovethecursorandshootasoftenastheywishedwhilethetargetwasmissed,in otherwordswhilethecursorandthetargetwerenotsuperimposedatthetimeofshooting.when thetargetwashit,anothertrialbegan. Theexperimenterpresentedthisproceduretotheparticipantsasavideogame.Theywereaskedto touchasfastaspossibleeachtargetbyneglectingthedistractor.eachsetoftrialswaspresentedto theparticipantasonegame.sixgamesofsixtytrialswerepresentedtoeachparticipant,witha pausebetweeneachgame.theglobalscorewasgivenattheendofallblocks.alltrialsofeachgame wereperformedonthesamebackground,whichdidnotdisappearbetweeneachtrial.whenthe backgroundwasmoving,themotionwascontinuousanddidnotstopforthewholegame.theorder ofpresentationofthe6games2x3differentconditionsofmotionpresence/absenceand 9
11 complexity)perparticipantwaspseudowrandomized.ineachgame,theorderofpresentationofthe differentclueswasalsopseudowrandomized Dependent$measures$ Performancewasassessedusingthemeanresponsetimetohiteachtargetortocompleteeach trial)asthedependentmeasure.toexplaintheperformance,participants eyemovementswere analyzedusingsixdependentmeasures:themeannumberoffixationspertrial,themeandurationof fixations,theaveragelocationoffixationsonthedisplaydefinedbythehorizontal X andvertical Y coordinates),themeannumberofsaccadespertrialandtheaverageamplitudeofsaccades. Foreachtrial,onlytheeyefixationsandsaccadesthatweremadewhilesearchingforthetarget.In otherwords,boththefixationthatwasinterruptedbytheappearanceofthetargetanddistractor andthefixationthatwasongoingwhenthetargetwashitwerenotincludedintheanalysis.all variableswereanalyzedusingrepeatedmeasuresanovaswiththebackgroundmotionandthe backgroundcomplexityaswithinwparticipantsfactors.whenthemauchleysphericitytestwas significant,greenhousewgeissercorrectionwasapplied Results$ Alllateresponsesresponsetimesgreaterthan3000ms)wereexcludedfromanalyses.Thenumber oftrialsthatwereexcludedrepresentedonaverage2.1%ofthetotalnumberoftrialsperparticipant min=0.0%,max=13.3%).responsetimedatawerelogarithmicallytransformedbeforeanovas wereperformed.forclarityofpresentation,themeansoftheuntransformeddataarereportedin thetext,graphicandtable.themeansandstandarddeviationsofalldependentmeasuresare displayedintable1.theresultsoftheanovasandplannedcomparisonsthatwereperformedto analyzethedataaredisplayedintable2. 10
12 [Table1nearhere] [Table2nearhere] Mean$response$time$ AsshownonFigure2,backgroundcomplexityhadaninfluenceontheresponsetime.Planned comparisonsdemonstratedthattheresponsetimewaslongerinthelowclutterconditionm=1392 ms,sd=264)thaninthenoclutterm=1341ms,sd=253),orhighclutterconditionsm=1359ms, SD=265).Thedifferencebetweenthesetwolastconditionswasnotsignificant.Backgroundmotion hadalsoanimpactontheresponsetime.theresponsetimewaslongeronthemovingbackground M=1404ms,SD=244)thanonthestaticoneM=1324ms,SD=272).However,theinteraction betweenthemotionandcomplexityfactorswasnotsignificant. [Figure2nearhere] Eye$movement$data$ Qualitativeobservationoftheeyemovementdatadisplayedbyasampleofparticipantsshowedthat whenthebackgroundwasmoving,anoknconsistingofslowphasesorientedleftwardsinterrupted byquickphasesorientedrightwardswaspresentinbetweentrials.themaximumvelocityofslow phasesreached5to10deg/sdependingonparticipants.whenthetargetanddistractorappeared, theokndisappeared,andonlyfixationsandsaccadeswerevisible,probablybecausethetarget and/ordistractorwereusedasstationary anchoringpoints tocancelthenystagmusilg,1997). 11
13 Asexplainedinthemethodsection,onlytheeyefixationsandsaccadesthatweremadewhile searchingforthetargetwereanalyzed.hence,thefixationsandsaccadesthatwereanalyzed accountedforabout50%ofresponsetimes. Fixations, Inaccordancewiththeresponsetimedata,backgroundcomplexityhadaninfluenceonthenumber offixationsthatweremadewhilesearchingforthetarget.plannedcomparisonsdemonstratedthat thenumberoffixationswashigherinthelowclutterconditionthaninthenoclutterone.other comparisonswerenotsignificant,eventhoughparticipantstendedtomakemorefixationsinthelow clutterconditionthaninthehighclutterone.backgroundmotionhadalsoanimpactonthenumber offixations,whichwashigheronthemovingbackgroundthanonthestaticone.however,the interactionbetweenthetwofactorswasnotsignificant. BackgroundmotionhadanimpactonthehorizontalcoordinateX)offixations.Inaverage,fixations werelocatedmorerightwardsonthemovingbackgroundthanonthestaticone.background complexityhadnoimpactonthehorizontalcoordinateoffixations,buttheinteractionbetweenthe twofactorswassignificant.plannedcomparisonsdemonstratedthatwhenthebackgroundwas moving,thefixationswerelocatedmorerightwardsinthehighclutterconditionthaninthelow clutterone,andalsomorerightwardsinthelowclutterconditionthaninthenoclutterone.when thebackgroundwasstatic,incontrast,therewasnotanysignificanteffectofbackgroundcomplexity onthehorizontalcoordinateoffixations. Therewasnotanysignificanteffectofbackgroundcomplexityormotiononthemeandurationor theverticalcoordinatey)ofthefixations,oranysignificantinteractionbetweenthetwofactors. Saccades, Thenumberofsaccadesmadebytheparticipantswhilesearchingforthetargetwashigher,and theiraverageamplitudelower,onthemovingbackgroundthanonthestaticone.therewasnotany 12
14 significanteffectofbackgroundcomplexityonthemeannumberortheaverageamplitudeof saccades,oranysignificantinteractionbetweenthetwofactors. 3. Experiment$2$ 3.1. Method$ Theapparatus,design,procedureandparticipantsofExperiment2werethesameasthoseof Experiment1.ThematerialwasthesameasinExperiment1,butthethreebackgroundswere extractedfromthevideogame SimCity4 ElectronicArts,2003)Figure1),andwerecomposedof amainlygreenneutralpatternscatteredhsv:75,30w50,30)withnaturalisticobjectshsv:75,0w50, 20) Results$ Asinexperiment1,alllateresponsesresponsetimesgreaterthan3000ms)wereexcludedfrom analyses.thenumberoftrialsthatwereexcludedrepresentedonaverage2.0%ofthetotalnumber oftrialsperparticipantmin=0.0%,max=10.8%).responsetimedatawerelogarithmically transformedbeforeanovaswereperformed.forclarityofpresentation,themeansofthe untransformeddataarereportedinthetext,graphicandtable.themeansandstandarddeviations ofalldependentmeasuresaredisplayedintable3.theresultsoftheanovasandplanned comparisonsthatwereperformedtoanalyzethedataaredisplayedintable4. [Table3nearhere] [Table4nearhere] 13
15 Mean$response$time$ AsshownonFigure3,backgroundcomplexityhadnotanysignificantinfluenceontheresponsetime. Incontrast,backgroundmotionhadanimpactontheresponsetime,whichwaslongeronthe movingbackgroundm=1360ms,sd=262)thanonthestaticonem=1291ms,sd=250). Furthermore,theinteractionbetweenbackgroundmotionandcomplexitywassignificant.Planned comparisonsshowedthatwhenthebackgroundwasmoving,theresponsetimewaslongerinthe lowclutterconditionthaninthenoclutterone.othercomparisonswerenotsignificant.whenthe backgroundwasstatic,theresponsetimewasnotsignificantlydifferentbetweenthethreeclutter conditions. [Figure3nearhere] Eye$movement$data$ AsinExperiment1,qualitativeobservationoftheeyemovementdatadisplayedbyasampleof participantssuggestedthatwhenthebackgroundwasmoving,anoknwastriggeredinbetween trials.again,onlytheeyefixationsandsaccadesthatweremadewhilesearchingforthetargetwere analyzed.theyaccountedforabout40%ofresponsetimes. Fixations, Eventhoughparticipantstendedtomakemorefixationswhenthebackgroundwasmoving,there wasnotanysignificanteffectofbackgroundcomplexityormotiononthemeannumberoffixations thatweremadewhilesearchingforthetarget,oranysignificantinteractionbetweenthetwo factors. 14
16 Similarly,therewasnotanysignificanteffectofbackgroundcomplexityormotiononthemean durationortheverticalcoordinatey)ofthefixations,oranysignificantinteractionbetweenthetwo factors AsinExperiment1,backgroundmotionhadanimpactonthehorizontalcoordinateX)offixations. Thefixationswerelocatedmorerightwardsonthemovingbackgroundthanonthestaticone.In contrast,therewasnotanysignificanteffectofbackgroundcomplexityonthehorizontalcoordinate offixations,oranysignificantinteractionbetweenthetwofactors. Saccades, AsinExperiment1,theaverageamplitudeofsaccadeswasloweronthemovingbackgroundthanon thestaticone.but,incontrast,therewasnotanysignificanteffectofbackgroundmotiononthe meannumberofsaccades.therewasnotanysignificanteffectofbackgroundcomplexityonthe meannumberortheamplitudeofsaccades,oranysignificantinteractionbetweenthetwofactors. 4. Discussion$ Thefirsthypothesiswasthattheperformanceislowerwhenthebackgroundiscomplexthanwhenit islesscomplex.itwaspartiallysupported.theresponsetimevariedsignificantlyaccordingtothe backgroundcomplexityonlyinexperiment1.furthermore,theresponsetimewashigherinthelow clutterconditionthaninboththenoclutterandhighclutterconditions.inaccordancewiththese data,participantsmademoreortendedtomakemorefixationswhilesearchingforthetargetinthe lowclutterconditionthaninthenoclutterorhighclutterconditions.accordingtobecketal.2010) andwolfeetal.2002),theperformanceimpairmentinavisualsearchtaskwouldlinearlyincrease withthevisualcomplexityofthescene.thus,theparticipants responsetimeshouldhavebeen higherinthehighclutterthaninthelowcluttercondition.hencethewaythevisualcomplexityof backgroundswassetinthepresentstudymaynothavebeencompletelyadequate.accordingtothe results,thepresenceofobjectssuperimposedonapatterndoesincreasethevisualcomplexityofthe 15
17 background,butincreasingtheproportionofthesurfacetheycoverdoesnotseemtoincrease backgroundcomplexity,andmayactuallydecreaseit.thequantityofsalientvisualcontrastsinthe backgroundmaynotdirectlydependontheproportionofthescenecoveredbytheobjects. Inordertohaveanothermeasurethanthelevelofcluttertoqualifythecomplexityofeach backgroundusedinthepresentstudy,saliencymapswerecomputedfromthevariousbackgrounds usedinthetwoexperimentsusingthe Saliencytoolbox2.3 Walther&Koch,2006),which implementsthesaliencymodeloriginallyproposedbyittiandkoch2000)figure4).thismodelis abletopredicthumangazeallocationonthedifferentpartsofvisualscenesbycomputingregionsof saliency.intheresultantsaliencymaps,lowvaluesindicatetheregionsofthescenethatarenot salient,whereashighvaluesindicatetheregionsthataresalientandtendtoattracttheobserver s attention. QualitativeobservationofthesaliencymapsobtainedforthebackgroundsusedinExperiment1 showthattherewereseveralhighlysalientregionsinthelowclutterbackground,whereasthe overallsaliencyofsalientregionswaslowerinthenoclutterandhighclutterbackgrounds. Consequently,theparticipants gazewasprobablymoreimpactedbylowwlevelvisualfeaturesinthe lowclutterbackgroundthanintheotherones.thisisinaccordancewithresponsetimedata,which demonstratedthatperformancewasmoreimpairedbythelowclutterbackgroundthanbythehigh clutterone. ThesaliencymapsobtainedforthebackgroundsusedinExperiment2werequitesimilartothose obtainedinexperiment1,i.e.displayedmorehighlysalientregionsinthelowclutterconditionthan inthetwootherones.however,thedifferencebetweenthethreetypesofbackgroundwasless importantthaninexperiment1.thiscouldexplainwhytheparticipants gazeandperformancewere notsignificantlyimpactedbymanipulationsofbackgroundcomplexity,butonlybythejoint manipulationofbothbackgroundmotionandcomplexity. 16
18 [Figure4nearhere] Insum,inthesetwoexperiments,themostvisuallycomplexbackgroundwasapparentlythatwhere thesuperimposedobjectscovered25%,andnot50%,ofthescreensurface.whentheproportionof thescreencoveredbyobjectswastoohigh,theimpactofthebackgroundwasnotsignificantly differentfromthatofthebasicbackgroundwherenoobjectwaspresent.hence,thesaliencyscale ofavisualsceneseemstogiveabettermeasureofcomplexitythanthelevelofclutter,but complementaryexperimentsareneededtodeterminetowhatextentthisistrue. ContrarytowhatwasexpectedaccordingtoHendersonetal.2009),theanalysisofeyemovements didnotdemonstrateanysignificantinfluenceofbackgroundcomplexityonthedurationofeye fixations.thisconfirmsthattheproportionofthescenecoveredbyobjectsmaynotbeanideal measureofbackgroundcomplexity.alternatively,theinfluenceofthisfactoronthedurationof fixationsmaybetooweakinthepresentconditionstobeobservable. Thesecondhypothesiswasthatwithacomplexbackground,theperformanceisevenmoreimpaired when,inaddition,thebackgroundismoving.itwaspartiallysupported.theresultsshowedthatthe performancewasalwayslowerwhenthebackgroundwasmovingthanwhenitwasstatic,whatever thetypeofbackground.theseresultsareinlinewiththoseofpreviousstudiescarouxetal.,2013; Harrisonetal.,2010;Kaminiarzetal.,2007;Tozzietal.,2007).Theanalysisofeyemovements showedthatthisimpairmentmaybeduetotheneedtocanceltheokntriggeredbybackground motion,whichwoulddisturbgazecontrolandinformationprocessingwhiletheparticipantsare searchingforandshootingatthetarget.indeed,whenthebackgroundwasmoving,theaveragegaze orientationwasdeviatedtowardsthesideoforiginofthemotionasexpectedinthepresenceofokn Ilg,1997).Inaddition,participantsmadesmallersaccadesinbothexperimentsandtendedtomake moresaccadesandfixationsonthedisplay,thoughsignificancewasreachedonlyinexperiment1. 17
19 Contrarytopredictions,however,thepredictedinteractionbetweenthebackgroundmotionand complexitywassignificantonlyinexperiment2.theresultsshowedthatwhentherewasnoclutter orahighclutter,therewasnotanysignificantdifferenceofresponsetimebetweenthestaticand movingbackgrounds.whentheclutterwaslow,theresponsetimewashigheronthemoving backgroundthanonthestaticone.inthisexperiment,thepresenceofobjectssuperimposedonthe neutralpatternimpairedperformanceonlywhenthebackgroundwasmoving,andonlywhenthe proportionofthebackgroundsurfacecoveredbyobjectswasnottoohighi.e.whenthebackground includednumeroushighlysalientregions) Conclusions$and$outlook$ Thepresentstudyshowedthattheperformanceinasimpleshootingtaskisoftenimpairedby backgroundmotion,inaccordancewithpreviousstudieswithothertaskscarouxetal.,2013; Harrisonetal.,2010;Kaminiarzetal.,2007;Tozzietal.,2007).Moreover,thepresentstudy demonstratedthattheeffectsofbackgroundvisualcomplexityandmotionontheperformanceare additiveforoneofthebackgroundsexperiment1)andmultiplicativefortheotheroneexperiment 2). However,onelimitofthepresentstudyisthatthetwoexperimentsdidnotgiveexactlythesame results.theimpactofbackgroundcomplexityonparticipants performancewasdifferentaccording tothebackgroundthatwasused.inexperiment1,thesimpleeffectofbackgroundcomplexitywas significant.inexperiment2,thesimpleeffectofbackgroundcomplexitywasnotsignificant,butthere wasasignificantinteractionwithbackgroundmotionsuchthatbackgroundcomplexityhada significantimpactonperformancewhenthebackgroundwasmoving. Thisdifferenceofresultscanonlybeduetothenatureofthevisualelementsthatwereusedinthe twobackgrounds.allotherparametersoftheexperimentswerestrictlysimilar.amongpossible explanations,thedifferentarrangementsoftheobjectsontheneutralpattern,orthedifferent 18
20 shadesofgreensusedforthepatterns,theobjectsorbothseemtocreatedifferentialcontrastsand localcomplexitiesbetweenthetwobackgrounds.inaddition,thecolorsofthedifferentvisual elementsusedinthetwobackgroundsweredifferentintermsofcolorhue,saturationand value.allthismayinfluencethedifficultyofthetargetanddistractorperceptiontask.forexample, previousstudiesshowedthatvisualsearchperformancemayvarydependingonothertypesofloww levelfeaturesofthebackground,suchasluminance,orientationandspatialfrequencye.g.,devries, Hooge,Wertheim,&Verstraten,2013).Furtherexperimentsarenecessarytoexplaintowhatextent thesespecificlowwlevelfeaturescaninfluencetheperceptionanduseofobjectssuperimposedona structuredbackground,incombinationwithbackgroundcomplexityandmotion. 5. Acknowledgments$ TheauthorsthankJeanPylousterforhistechnicalassistanceintheanalysisoftheeyemovement data,especiallyintheadaptationofthe GazeAlyze softwarepackageforthetobiit120data.loïc CarouxwassupportedbyaPh.D.fellowshipfromtheDirectionGénéraledel ArmementDGA, FrenchMinistryofDefense)andfollowedintheframeofthisfellowshipbyDidierBazalgette. 6. References$ Asher,M.F.,Tolhurst,D.J.,Troscianko,T.,&Gilchrist,I.D.2013).Regionaleffectsofclutteron humantargetdetectionperformance.journalofvision,135),article25,1 15. doi: / Beck,M.R.,Lohrenz,M.C.,&Trafton,J.G.2010).Measuringsearchefficiencyincomplexvisual searchtasks:globalandlocalclutter.journalofexperimentalpsychology:applied,16, doi: /a Berger,C.,Winkels,M.,Lischke,A.,&Höppner,J.2012).GazeAlyze:aMATLABtoolboxforthe 19
21 analysisofeyemovementdata.behaviorresearchmethods,44, doi: /s13428w011w0149wx Caroux,L.,LeBigot,L.,&Vibert,N.2013).Impactofthemotionandvisualcomplexityofthe backgroundonplayers performanceinvideogamewlikedisplays.ergonomics,56, doi: / Chen,X.,&Hegdé,J.2012).Learningtobreakcamouflagebylearningthebackground.Psychological Science,23, doi: / DeVries,J.P.,Hooge,I.T.C.,Wertheim,A.H.,&Verstraten,F.A.J.2013).Background,animportant factorinvisualsearch.visionresearch,86, doi: /j.visres Harrison,W.J.,Thompson,M.B.,&Sanderson,P.M.2010).MultisensoryintegrationwithaheadW mounteddisplay:backgroundvisualmotionandsoundmotion.humanfactors,52, doi: / Henderson,J.M.,Chanceaux,M.,&Smith,T.J.2009).TheinfluenceofclutteronrealWworldscene search:evidencefromsearchefficiencyandeyemovements.journalofvision,91),article32, 1 8.doi: / Honda,H.2001).Visualmislocalisationinducedbytranslationalandradialbackgroundmotion. Perception,30, doi: /p3132 Ilg,U.J.1997).Sloweyemovements.ProgressinNeurobiology,53, doi: /S0301W )00039W7 Itti,L.,&Koch,C.2000).AsaliencyWbasedsearchmechanismforovertandcovertshiftsofvisual attention.visionresearch,40, Jie,L.,&Clark,J.J.2008).VideogamedesignusinganeyeWmovementWdependentmodelofvisual attention.acmtransactionsonmultimediacomputingcommunicationsandapplications, 20
22 43),article22,1 16.doi: / Kaminiarz,A.,Krekelberg,B.,&Bremmer,F.2007).Localizationofvisualtargetsduringoptokinetic eyemovements.visionresearch,47, doi: /j.visres Kim,J.,&Palmisano,S.2010).Eccentricgazedynamicsenhancevectionindepth.JournalofVision, 1012),article7,1 11.doi: / Neider,M.B.,&Zelinsky,G.J.2011).Cuttingthroughtheclutter:Searchingfortargetsinevolving complexscenes.journalofvision,1114),article7,1 16.doi: / Rayner,K.2009).Eyemovementsandattentioninreading,sceneperception,andvisualsearch. QuarterlyJournalofExperimentalPsychology,62, doi: / Riecke,B.E.,SchulteWPelkum,J.,Avraamides,M.N.,VonDerHeyde,M.,&Bülthoff,H.H.2006). CognitivefactorscaninfluenceselfWmotionperceptionvection)invirtualreality.ACM TransactionsonAppliedPerception,3, doi: / Tozzi,A.,Morrone,M.C.,&Burr,D.C.2007).Theeffectofoptokineticnystagmusontheperceived positionofbrieflyflashedtargets.visionresearch,47, doi: /j.visres Trutoiu,L.C.,Mohler,B.J.,SchulteWPelkum,J.,&Bülthoff,H.H.2009).Circular,linear,and curvilinearvectioninalargewscreenvirtualenvironmentwithfloorprojection.computers& Graphics,33,47 58.doi: /j.cag Waespe,W.,&Schwarz,U.1987).Sloweyemovementsinducedbyapparenttargetmotionin monkey.experimentalbrainresearch,67, doi: /bf Walther,D.,&Koch,C.2006).ModelingattentiontosalientprotoWobjects.NeuralNetworks,19, doi: /j.neunet
23 Wolfe,J.M.1994).GuidedSearch2.0:Arevisedmodelofvisualsearch.PsychonomicBulletin& Review,1, doi: /bf Wolfe,J.M.,Oliva,A.,Horowitz,T.S.,Butcher,S.J.,&Bompas,A.2002).Segmentationofobjects frombackgroundsinvisualsearchtasks.visionresearch,42, doi: /S0042W )00388W7 22
24 Table1.MeansM)andstandarddeviationsSD)ofdependentmeasuresaccordingtobackground complexityandmotioninexperiment1. Noclutter Lowclutter Highclutter M SD M SD M SD Meanresponsetimeinms) Staticbackground Movingbackground Meannumberoffixations Staticbackground Movingbackground Meandurationoffixationsinms) Staticbackground Movingbackground Averagepositionoffixationsinpixels) Horizontal*coordinate*X)* Staticbackground Movingbackground Vertical*coordinate*Y)* Staticbackground Movingbackground Meannumberofsaccades Staticbackground Movingbackground Averageamplitudeofsaccadesindegrees) Staticbackground Movingbackground
25 Table2.ResultsofANOVAsandplannedcomparisonsperformedinExperiment1. ANOVA Plannedcomparison df* η 2 p* Meanresponsetime BackgroundComplexity 2, < Novs.Low 1, <.05 W Novs.High 1, W Lowvs.High 1, <.05 W BackgroundMotion 1, < BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, W Meannumberoffixations BackgroundComplexity 2, < Novs.Low 1, <.05 W Novs.High 1, W Lowvs.High 1, W BackgroundMotion 1, < BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, W Meandurationoffixations BackgroundComplexity 2, W BackgroundMotion 1, W BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, W Averagepositionoffixations Horizontal*coordinate*X)* BackgroundComplexity 2, W BackgroundMotion 1, < BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, < Static,Novs.Low 1, W Static,Novs.High 1, W Static,Lowvs.High 1, W Moving,Novs.Low 1, <.05 W Moving,Novs.High 1, <.001 W Moving,Lowvs.High 1, <.05 W Vertical*coordinate*Y)* BackgroundComplexity 2, W BackgroundMotion 1, W BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, W Meannumberofsaccades BackgroundComplexity 2, W BackgroundMotion 1, < BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, W Averageamplitudeofsaccades BackgroundComplexity 2, W BackgroundMotion 1, < BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, W Note.No=NoClutter;Low=LowClutter;High=HighClutter;Static=StaticBackground;Moving=Moving Background.Plannedcomparisonsaredisplayedonlywhenthecorrespondingmaineffectorinteractionwas significant.partialη²aredisplayedonlywhenthemaineffectsorinteractionsweresignificant. 24
26 Table3.MeansM)andstandarddeviationsSD)ofdependentmeasuresaccordingtobackground complexityandmotioninexperiment2. Noclutter Lowclutter Highclutter M SD M SD M SD Meanresponsetimeinms) Staticbackground Movingbackground Meannumberoffixations Staticbackground Movingbackground Meandurationoffixationsinms) Staticbackground Movingbackground Averagepositionoffixationsinpixels) Horizontal*coordinate*X)* Staticbackground Movingbackground Vertical*coordinate*Y)* Staticbackground Movingbackground Meannumberofsaccades Staticbackground Movingbackground Averageamplitudeofsaccadesindegrees) Staticbackground Movingbackground
27 Table4.ResultsofANOVAsandplannedcomparisonsperformedinExperiment2. ANOVA Plannedcomparison df* η 2 p* Meanresponsetime BackgroundComplexity 2, W BackgroundMotion 1, < BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, < Static,Novs.Low 1, W Static,Novs.High 1, W Static,Lowvs.High 1, W Moving,Novs.Low 1, <.05 W Moving,Novs.High 1, W Moving,Lowvs.High 1, W Meannumberoffixations BackgroundComplexity 2, W BackgroundMotion 1, W BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, W Meandurationoffixations BackgroundComplexity 2, W BackgroundMotion 1, W BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, W Averagepositionoffixations Horizontal*coordinate*X)* BackgroundComplexity 2, W BackgroundMotion 1, < BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, W Vertical*coordinate*Y)* BackgroundComplexity 2, W BackgroundMotion 1, W BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, W Meannumberofsaccades BackgroundComplexity 2, W BackgroundMotion 1, W BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, W Averageamplitudeofsaccades BackgroundComplexity 2, W BackgroundMotion 1, < BackgroundComplexityxMotion 2, W Note.No=NoClutter;Low=LowClutter;High=HighClutter;Static=StaticBackground;Moving= MovingBackground.Plannedcomparisonsaredisplayedonlywhenthecorrespondingmaineffector interactionwassignificant.partialη²aredisplayedonlywhenthemaineffectsorinteractionswere significant. 26
28 Experiment1 Experiment2 No clutter Backgroundcomplexity Low clutter High clutter Figure1.BackgroundsusedinExperiment1andExperiment2,withdifferentexamplesoflocationsofatarget, adistractorandthecursor.foreachexperiment,threebackgroundsofvariouscomplexitiesweredesigned. Thecomplexitywasdeterminedbytheclutter,i.e.theproportionoftheinitial,neutralpatterncoveredbythe superimposedobjects. 27
29 MeanresponseFmems) Movingbackground Stazcbackground Nocluyer Lowcluyer Highcluyer Backgroundcomplexity Figure2.Meanresponsetimeinms)tohiteachtargetineachconditionofbackgroundcomplexityandmotion inexperiment1,representedonalogarithmicallyspacedaxis.theerrorbarsrepresent±1standarderrorofthe mean. 28
30 MeanresponseFmems) Movingbackground Stazcbackground Nocluyer Lowcluyer Highcluyer Backgroundcomplexity Figure3.Meanresponsetimeinms)tohiteachtargetwithineachconditionofbackgroundcomplexityand motioninexperiment2,representedonalogarithmicallyspacedaxis.theerrorbarsrepresent±1standard errorofthemean. 29
31 !! Experiment!1! Abstractbackground Experiment!2! Correspondingsaliencymap Correspondingsaliencymap Naturalisticbackground No clutter Background!Complexity! Low clutter High clutter Figure'4.BackgroundsusedinExperiments1and2withthecorrespondingsaliencymaps.Thebrighterregionswithinthesaliencymapsindicatehigher valuesofsaliency. 30
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