Sami Alhumaidi, Ph.D. Prince Sultan Advanced Technology Institute King Saud University Radar Symposium, Riyadh December 9, 2014
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1 Anomalous Wave Propagation and its Adverse Effects on Military Operations Sami Alhumaidi, Ph.D. Prince Sultan Advanced Technology Institute King Saud University Radar Symposium, Riyadh December 9, 2014
2 CONTENTS Introduction Troposphere Atmospheric Absorption and Rain Wave Propagation Refractivity Anomalous Propagation Surface-Based Duct Types and Formation of Ducts Probability and Distribution of Ducting Variability and Rapid Change in Duct location Conclusion 2
3 INTRODUCTION Modern Air Defense Systems rely heavily on the accuracy of Early Warning Surveillance and Designation radars. Radars use reflections of electromagnetic waves from targets to determine parameters, including range, velocity, headings, etc. Accuracy of predicting these parameters depends on the accuracy of estimating the propagation medium. The Arabian Gulf region is among few locations globally known for abnormal EM wave propagation phenomenon which can lead to great inaccuracies in target detections. Identify-Friend-or-Foe (IFF) systems can also be affected severely by this phenomenon. Electronic Warfare infrastructure is dependent on accurate signal propagation modeling and predictions. Real-time monitoring and prediction mechanism must be put in place to enhance predictability of propagation medium and hence better target parameter inference. 3
4 TROPOSPHERE The lowest part of the earth s atmosphere is called the troposphere. Typically, the troposphere extends from the surface of the earth to an altitude of approximately 9 km at the poles and 17 km at the equator. Within the troposphere, the temperature is found to decrease with altitude at a rate of approximately 7 deg C per kilometer. The weather system is confined to the troposphere and fluctuations in weather parameters like temperature, pressure and humidity cause the refractive index of the air in this layer to vary from one point to another. 4
5 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION Energy traveling through the atmosphere suffers from atmospheric attenuation caused primarily by absorption by the gasses 5
6 RAIN EFFECTS The intensity of precipitation also affects atmospheric attenuation. 6
7 WAVE PROPAGATION We know signals do propagate beyond the horizon, due to: Refraction - bending of signals towards ground Scattering - from air, from rain Diffraction - from terrain Using Snell s law, a radio ray projected into the atmosphere will have to travel from a denser to rarer medium and will refract downwards towards the surface of the earth 7
8 TEMPERATURE INVERSION Under normal atmospheric conditions, the warmest air is found near the surface of the Earth. The air gradually becomes cooler as altitude increases. At times, however, an unusual situation develops in which layers of warm air are formed above layers of cool air. This condition is known as temperature inversion. These temperature inversions cause channels, or ducts, of cool air to be sandwiched between the surface of the Earth and a layer of warm air, or between two layers of warm air. 8
9 TEMPERATURE INVERSION if the radio wave enters the duct at a very low angle of incidence, transmissions may be propagated far beyond normal line-of-sight distances. The sudden change in density when a radio wave enters the warm air above a duct causes the wave to be refracted back toward Earth. When the wave strikes the Earth or a warm layer below the duct, it is again reflected or refracted upward and proceeds on through the duct with a multiple-hop type of action. 9
10 REFRACTIVITY (N) In general, the refractive index, n, of the troposphere decreases with altitude. A typical value for n at sea level is A few meters above sea level, this might decrease to a value such as The index of refraction can be considered as layered within the atmosphere. It is standard to transform the index of refraction n into refractivity units, N via the definition, A convenient way of expressing these unwieldy numbers is to use the concept of refractivity instead. Refractivity, N, is defined as follows [2,3]: N = (n-1) x 10 6 So, for example, when n = , N =
11 ANOMALOUS PROPAGATION Anomalous propagation, also known as Ducting, occurs when the radar beam is bent down to the earth s surface. This phenomenon results from atmospheric refractivity gradients. The associated vertical gradient of refractivity with respect to index of refraction is, 11
12 SURFACE-BASED DUCT Surface-based ducts appear about 15% of the time worldwide, 25% of the time off Southern California Coast, and 50% of the time in the Arabian Gulf [Patterson, 1992]. They can result in significant height errors for 3-D radar as the lowest elevation scans become trapped on the surface instead of refracting upward as would be expected for a standard atmosphere 12
13 MODIFIED REFRACTIVITY A more classical form of representing n is that of modified refractivity, M. In this case, the surface of the earth is represented by a flat plane and the radio rays are constituted by curves that are determined by Snell s law and the corresponding value of M at each point along the radio link. The following is the expression for M : Where N = refractivity (in N-units), h = height above sea level (in meters), a = radius of the earth (in meters) For constant M the curvature of the ray is that of the Earth's surface and, when for negative M vertical gradients the ray path is bent towards the surface and radio waves get trapped. 13
14 ANALYSIS OF DUCT The refractive index falls exponentially with height in a standard atmosphere. In the first 1000m we can approximate this as a straight line : Slope ~ -40 N/km We write this as: dn/dh = -40 Non-standard atmospheres lead to anomalous propagation. Pressure is not a factor it tends to be quickly restored to equilibrium by winds. Most important are the variations in: Water vapor density. Temperature. Ducts form when either T is increasing or water vapor is decreasing unusually rapidly with height. 14
15 TYPES OF DUCT Small (but rapid) change in the refractive index profile that facilitates the formation of meteorological phenomena called evaporation ducts Two refractivity structures that significantly affect the performance radars are Evaporation ducts. Surface-based ducts. Elevated Ducts. When a duct is present, the low altitude propagation loss will usually be much less than for a standard atmosphere, and thus increasing the range at which low-altitude targets can be detected. 15
16 FORMATION OF DUCT Usual Causes: Radiation from the land raises the air temperature near the ground The ground cools quickly on clear nights Evaporation from areas of water can cause local high humidity gradients If the duct depth is small compared to the wavelength, energy will not be trapped large compared to the wavelength, energy will be scattered out of the duct Surface ducts have the ground as a boundary and energy will be lost to the terrain, vegetation etc.pressure is not a factor it tends to be quickly restored to equilibrium by winds. 16
17 PROBABILITY OF DUCTING Global probability of ducting: (The Arabian Gulf region has a very high probability of ducting, with ducts present for more than 50% of the time) From Mike Willis 17
18 DISTRIBUTION OF DUCTING Global distribution of ducting: (ITU map of August monthly average of vertical refractivity gradients.) 18
19 VARIABILITY OF DUCTING IN THE GULF Duct-type in the area of The Arabian Gulf (28 April 1996) (a) 2400 UTC and (b) 1500 UTC (1800 h LT). Purple (1) denotes surface duct; dark green (2) denotes S-shaped duct; light green (3) denotes elevated duct orange (4) denotes complex duct. From ATKINSON et. al
20 VARIABILITY OF DUCTING IN THE GULF Height (m) of the duct-top in The Arabian Gulf area, (28 April 1996) (a) 2400 UTC (0300 h LT on 29th) (b) 1500 UTC (1800 h LT).. From ATKINSON et. al
21 VARIABILITY OF DUCTING IN THE GULF Ducting probability per season at each latitude, longitude grid point. White areas indicate no ducting occurrence. From von Engeln et. al
22 VARIABILITY OF DUCTING IN THE GULF Ducting probability per universal time at each latitude, longitude grid point. White areas indicate no ducting occurrence. From von Engeln et. al
23 VARIABILITY OF DUCTING IN THE GULF Rapid variability of ducting in the Gulf region: (Average refractivity maps for the month of June comparing measurements at 00hrs -the right graph- and measurements at 12hrs -the left graph) From Sheikh et. al. 23
24 VARIABILITY OF DUCTING IN THE GULF Rapid variability of ducting in the Gulf region: (Average refractivity maps for the month of July comparing measurements at 00hrs -the right graph- and measurements at 12hrs -the left graph) From Sheikh et. al. 24
25 conclusion Ducting phenomenon is a serious weather condition that can severely degrade the effectiveness of air defense systems. The condition is caused by well-known atmospheric mechanisms that are extremely difficult to predict. Radar waves can get trapped in this region and experience much less attenuation than expected (hence travel further distances and cause inaccuracies). The Arabian Gulf region is one of the most extreme regions in the world known for the frequent occurrences of this phenomenon. A great deal of variability and rapid re-distribution of duct regions can make prediction very challenging. Real-time monitoring and prediction mechanism must be devised to collect extensive data and make live correction to radar data. 25
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