Contents. Preface. Acknowledgments. Chapter 1: Monitoring the Weather
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1 Contents Preface Acknowledgments Chapter 1: Monitoring the Weather Weather and Climate Accessing Weather Information Time Keeping Weather Systems and Weather Maps Describing the State of the Atmosphere Weather Satellite Imagery Weather Radar Sky Watching Essay 1: Weather Maps, Historical Perspective Essay 2: Global Positioning System
2 Web Resources Chapter 2: Atmosphere: Origin, Composition, & Structure Evolution of the Atmosphere PRIMEVAL PHASE MODERN PHASE AIR POLLUTION Studying the Atmosphere THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD ATMOSPHERIC MODELS Measuring the Atmosphere SURFACE OBSERVATIONS UPPER-AIR OBSERVATIONS REMOTE SENSING Temperature Profile of the Atmosphere The Ionosphere and the Aurora
3 Essay 3: The Atmosphere of Mars Essay 4: Radio Transmission and the Ionosphere Essay 5: Space Weather and Atmospheric Impacts Web Resources Chapter 3: Solar & Terrestrial Radiation Electromagnetic Spectrum Radiation Laws Input of Solar Radiation SOLAR ALTITUDE EARTH S MOTIONS IN SPACE AND THE SEASONS THE SOLAR CONSTANT Solar Radiation and the Atmosphere Stratospheric Ozone Shield Solar Radiation and Earth s Surface Global Solar Radiation Budget Outgoing Infrared Radiation THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT GREENHOUSE GASES THE CALLENDAR EFFECT
4 POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE Monitoring Radiation Essay 6: Hazards of Solar Ultraviolet Radiation Essay 7: Solar Power Web Resources Chapter 4: Heat, Temperature & Atmospheric Circulation Distinguishing Temperature and Heat TEMPERATURE SCALES AND HEAT UNITS MEASURING AIR TEMPERATURE Heat Transfer Processes RADIATION CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION PHASE CHANGES OF WATER
5 Thermal Response and Specific Heat THERMAL INERTIA MARITIME AND CONTINENTAL CLIMATES Heat Imbalance: Atmosphere versus Earth s Surface LATENT HEATING SENSIBLE HEATING BOWEN RATIO Heat Imbalance: Tropics versus Middle and High Latitudes HEAT TRANSPORT BY AIR MASS EXCHANGE HEAT TRANSPORT BY STORMS HEAT TRANSPORT BY OCEAN CIRCULATION Why Weather? Variation of Air Temperature LOCAL RADIATION BUDGET COLD AND WARM AIR ADVECTION URBAN HEAT ISLAND EFFECT Essay 8: Managing Weather Risk Essay 9: Heating and Cooling Degree-Days Essay 10: Wind Chill Web Links
6 Chapter 5: Air Pressure Defining Air Pressure Air Pressure Measurement Air Pressure Units Variation in Air Pressure with Altitude Horizontal Variations in Air Pressure INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY INFLUENCE OF DIVERGING AND CONVERGING WINDS Highs and Lows The Gas Law Expansional Cooling and Compressional Warming CONSERVATION OF ENERGY ADIABATIC PROCESS Essay 11: Human Responses to Changes in Air Pressure Essay 12: Comparing Air and Water Pressure
7 Essay 13: Determining Altitude from Air Pressure Web Links Chapter 6: Humidity, Saturation & Stability Global Water Cycle TRANSFER PROCESSES GLOBAL WATER BUDGET How Humid Is It? VAPOR PRESSURE MIXING RATIO, SPECIFIC HUMIDITY, AND ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY SATURATED AIR RELATIVE HUMIDITY DEWPOINT PRECIPITABLE WATER Monitoring Water Vapor HUMIDITY INSTRUMENTS WATER VAPOR SATELLITE IMAGERY How Air Becomes Saturated Atmospheric Stability SOUNDINGS STÜVE DIAGRAM
8 Lifting Processes Essay 14: Heat, Humidity and Human Comfort Essay 15: Measuring Evaporation Essay 16: Atmospheric Stability and Air Quality Web Links Chapter 7: Clouds, Precipitation & Weather Radar Cloud Formation THE CURVATURE EFFECT ROLE OF NUCLEI SUPERCOOLED WATER Cloud Classification HIGH CLOUDS MIDDLE CLOUDS
9 LOW CLOUDS CLOUDS HAVING VERTICAL DEVELOPMENT UNUSUAL CLOUDS Fog Precipitation Processes TERMINAL VELOCITY WARM-CLOUD PRECIPITATION COLD-CLOUD PRECIPITATION HOLES AND CANALS IN CLOUDS Forms of Precipitation Acid Deposition Weather Radar: Locating Precipitation REFLECTIVITY MODE VELOCITY (DOPPLER) MODE DUAL-POLARIZATION WEATHER RADAR PHASED ARRAY WEATHER RADAR Measuring Precipitation RAIN AND SNOW GAUGES REMOTE SENSING OF PRECIPITATION Essay 17: Clouds by Mixing Essay 18: Rainmaking Essay 19: When Is It Too Cold or Too Warm to Snow?
10 Web Resources Chapter 8: Wind & Weather Forces Governing the Wind PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE CENTRIPETAL FORCE CORIOLIS EFFECT FRICTION GRAVITY SUMMARY Wind: Joining Forces HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM GEOSTROPHIC WIND GRADIENT WIND SURFACE WINDS IN HIGHS AND LOWS Continuity of Wind Monitoring Wind Speed and Direction Scales of Atmospheric Circulation
11 Essay 20: Lake-Effect Snow Essay 21: Wind Profilers Essay 22: Wind Power Web Resources Chapter 9: Atmosphere s Planetary Circulation Idealized Circulation Pattern Features of the Planetary-Scale Circulation PRESSURE SYSTEMS AND WIND BELTS WINDS ALOFT TRADE WIND INVERSION SEASONAL SHIFTS OCEAN SURFACE CURRENTS Monsoon Circulation Long Waves in the Westerlies ZONAL AND MERIDIONAL FLOW PATTERNS BLOCKING SYSTEMS AND WEATHER EXTREMES
12 Jet Streams Cyclone Development El Niño and La Niña HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE EKMAN TRANSPORT NEUTRAL CONDITIONS IN THE TROPICAL PACIFIC WARM PHASE COLD PHASE PREDICTING AND MONITORING ENSO FREQUENCY OF EL NIÑO AND LA NIÑA North Atlantic Oscillation Arctic Oscillation Pacific Decadal Oscillation Essay 23: Defining Drought Essay 24: Historic El Niño Episodes of and Web Resources
13 Chapter 10: Weather Systems of Middle Latitudes Air Masses NORTH AMERICAN TYPES AND SOURCE REGIONS AIR MASS MODIFICATION Frontal Weather STATIONARY FRONT WARM FRONT COLD FRONT OCCLUDED FRONTS SUMMARY Extratropical Cyclones LIFE CYCLE CONVEYOR BELT MODEL CYCLONE WEATHER PRINCIPAL CYCLONE TRACKS COLD SIDE/WARM SIDE WINTER STORMS COLD- AND WARM-CORE SYSTEMS Anticyclones ARCTIC AND POLAR HIGHS WARM HIGHS ANTICYCLONE WEATHER Local and Regional Circulation Systems SEA (OR LAKE) BREEZE AND LAND BREEZE MOUNTAIN BREEZE AND VALLEY BREEZE CHINOOK WIND
14 SANTA ANA WIND KATABATIC WIND DESERT WINDS HEAT BURST Essay 25: The Case of the Missing Storm Essay 26: Nor easters Essay 27: Santa Ana Winds and California Fire Weather Web Links Chapter 11: Thunderstorms & Tornadoes Thunderstorm Life Cycle TOWERING CUMULUS STAGE MATURE STAGE DISSIPATING STAGE
15 Thunderstorm Classification Where and When Severe Thunderstorms Thunderstorm Hazards LIGHTNING DOWNBURSTS DERECHO FLASH FLOODS HAIL Tornadoes Tornado Characteristics Where and When Tornado Hazards and the EF-Scale The Tornado-Thunderstorm Connection Monitoring Tornadic Thunderstorms Essay 28: Lightning Safety Essay 29: Hail Suppression Essay 30: Tornado Look-Alikes Web Resources
16 Chapter 12: Tropical Weather Systems Weather in the Tropics Hurricane Characteristics Where and When Hurricane Life Cycle Hurricane Hazards INLAND FLOODING WIND STORM SURGE SAFFIR-SIMPSON HURRICANE WIND SCALE Trends in Hurricane Frequency Hurricane Threat to the Southeast United States BARRIER ISLANDS EVACUATION Long-Range Forecasting of Atlantic Hurricanes Hurricane Modification
17 Essay 31: Polar Lows with Hurricane Characteristics Essay 32: Naming Hurricanes Essay 33: The Unique Challenges of Superstorm Sandy Web Resources Chapter 13: Weather Analysis & Forecasting International Cooperation Acquisition of Weather Data SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVATIONS UPPER-AIR WEATHER OBSERVATIONS Weather Data Assimilation, Depiction and Analysis SURFACE WEATHER MAPS UPPER-AIR WEATHER MAPS Weather Prediction NUMERICAL WEATHER FORECASTING FORECASTING TROPICAL CYCLONES FORECASTING FOR AVIATION FORECASTING SEVERE STORMS RIVER AND FLOOD FORECASTING MARINE FORECASTING SPACE WEATHER FORECASTING
18 FORECAST SKILL LONG-RANGE FORECASTING SINGLE-STATION FORECASTING PRIVATE SECTOR FORECASTING Communication and Dissemination WEATHER-READY NATION Essay 34: Marine Weather Statements Essay 35: Chaos and the Limits to Forecasting Web Resources Chapter 14: Light & Sound in the Atmosphere Atmospheric Optics VISIBLE LIGHT AND COLOR PERCEPTION RED SUN, WHITE CLOUDS, AND BLUE SKY
19 HALO RAINBOW CORONA GLORY MIRAGE SUNRISE-SUNSET AND TWINKLING STARS TWILIGHT Atmospheric Acoustics SOUND WAVES THUNDER SONIC BOOM AEOLIAN SOUNDS Essay 36: Blue Haze Web Resources Chapter 15: Climate & Climate Change
20 What is climate? Importance of the Climate System A CHANGING CLIMATE CLIMATE VARIABILITY VERSUS CLIMATE CHANGE ASSESSING CREDIBLE CLIMATE INFORMATION Current Climate Paradigm MODES BY WHICH CLIMATE IS DEFINED LESSONS FROM THE CLIMATE OBSERVATIONS Natural Drivers of Climate Change SOLAR CHANGES FAINT YOUNG SUN PARADOX SUNSPOTS MAUNDER MINIMUM AND THE LITTLE ICE AGE CHANGES IN EARTH S ORBIT MILANKOVITCH CYCLES EVIDENCE FROM DEEP-SEA SEDIMENT CORES GEOLOGIC CONTRIBUTIONS Plate Tectonics Volcanoes Feedbacks TYPES OF FEEDBACKS SNOW AND ICE COVER SHRINKAGE OF ARCTIC SEA-ICE COVER Projections of Climate WHAT ARE MODELS? Global Climate Models Weather versus Climate Models Physical Basis for Modeling Earth s Climate
21 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming ASSESSMENT OF CLIMATE MODEL OUTPUT Impacts of Climate Change RISING SEA LEVELS SHRINKING GLACIERS ARCTIC ENVIRONMENT MARINE LIFE HUMAN VULNERABILITIES Essay 36: Why the Arctic warms faster Essay 37: Heat-related mortality in the 21st century Web Resources Topics-in-Depth Glossary Appendix I: CONVERSION FACTORS Appendix II: MILESTONES IN THE HISTORY OF ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE
22 Appendix III: Climate Classification
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