Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation
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1 Atmospheric Water
2 Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation Properties of Water The Hydrosphere and the Hydrologic Cycle Humidity The Adiabatic Processes Clouds Precipitation Air Quality
3 Main topics for today The Hydrosphere and the Water Cycle Water s properties are due to its polar nature Water has a very high heat capacity and high heat of fusion Warm air can contain more water vapor than cold air Relative Humidity and Dew Point Temperature are the most common ways to express how much water is in the air The Environmental Lapse rate is the observed change in air temperature with change in elevation An Adiabatic Process is the expansion or contraction of an air mass without heat loss or gain
4 Main points for today (cont) Clouds are classified by altitude and shape Precipitation can occur because of 1) convection, 2) orographic lifting, and/or 3) frontal processes Air Quality
5 The Water/Hydrologic Cycle
6 On a piece of paper, put these reservoirs of water in to order from largest to smallest Oceans Lakes Rivers Glaciers and continental ice Atmospheric water Soil moisture Groundwater
7 The Hydrosphere Reservoir (%) Oceans Glaciers and other ice Ground water Lakes Freshwater Lakes Saline Lakes Soil moisture Atmosphere Rivers
8 Properties of Water Physical States only natural substance that occurs naturally in three states on the earth s surface Heat Capacity Highest of all common solids and liquids Surface Tension Highest of all common liquids Latent Heat of Fusion Highest of all common substances Compressibility Virtually incompressible as a liquid Density Density of seawater is controlled by temperature, salinity and pressure Liquid has maximum density at +4 o C; solid phase has lower density! >> ice floats on water
9 Properties of Water (cont ) Radiative Properties transparent to visible wavelengths virtually opaque to many infrared wavelengths large range of albedo possible water 10 % (daily average) Ice 30 to 40% Snow 20 to 95% Cloud 30 to 90%
10 Fig. 6-21b, p. 138
11 Molecular Structure of Water water molecule ice Water's unique molecular structure and hydrogen bonds enable all 3 phases to exist in earth's atmosphere.
12 Molecular Structure of Water ice Water's unique molecular structure and hydrogen bonds enable all 3 phases to exist in earth's atmosphere.
13 Fig. 6-2, p. 122
14 Three States of Water Water can exist in three states - solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (water vapor) Water exists in the air in the form of water vapor, clouds, fog, and precipitation Figure 4.1, p. 121
15 Energy associated with phase change 80 calories 100 calories 540 calories!
16 Why does it take so much energy to evaporate water? In the liquid state, adjacent water molecules attract one another - charge on O attracted to + charge on H we call this hydrogen bonding This same hydrogen bond accounts for surface tension on a free water surface column of water sticks together
17 Water vapor pressure Molecules in an air parcel all contribute to pressure Each group of molecules (e.g., N 2, O 2, Ar, CO 2, H 2 O etc.) exerts a partial pressure. They all add up to the total pressure The VAPOR PRESSURE, e, is the pressure exerted by water vapor molecules in the air Often expressed in millibars (mbar) = 1 Bar/1000 Values of 2-30 mbar common at surface
18 Water vapor saturation Water molecules move between the liquid and gas phases When the rate of water molecules entering the liquid equals the rate leaving the liquid, we have equilibrium The air is said to be saturated with water vapor at this point Equilibrium does not mean that molecules stop moving back and forth, only that the rates are equal!
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21 Equilibrium
22 How do we express the amount of water vapor in an air parcel? Absolute humidity mass of water vapor/volume of air (g/m 3 ) changes when air parcel volume changes Specific humidity mass of water vapor/mass of air (g/kg) Mixing ratio mass of water vapor/mass of dry air (g/kg) Specific humidity and mixing ratio remain constant as long as water vapor is not added/removed to/from air parcel Dew point temperature the temperature at which the air parcel would be saturated
23 Expressing the water vapor pressure Relative Humidity (RH) is ratio of actual vapor pressure to saturation vapor pressure 100 * e/e S Range: 0-100% (+) Air with RH > 100% is supersaturated RH can be changed by Changes in water vapor content, e Changes in temperature, which alter e S
24 Basic Humidity Facts Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere Warm air can hold much more than cold air Cold dry air can have close to 0% Warm tropical air may have 4-5% Several ways to describe humidity (Dew Point and relative humidity are most common)
25 Changes in Specific Humidity with Latitude the actual quantity of water vapor in the air expressed as grams of water per kilogram of air (g/kg) used to describe the water content of large air masses, and how it varies by latitude
26 Relative Humidity a measure of the amount of water vapor present in air relative to the maximum amount that the air can hold at a given temperature (%) e.g. if relative humidity is 50%, then it contains 1/2 the amount of water vapor it could hold at a given temperature relative humidity decreases as temperature increases (assuming no water vapor is added)
27 Relationship between e S and T The saturation vapor pressure (e s )of water increases with temperature At higher T, faster water molecules in liquid escape more frequently causing equilibrium water vapor concentration to rise We sometimes say warmer air can hold more water There is also a vapor pressure of water over an ice surface The saturation vapor pressure above solid ice is less than above liquid water
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29 Relative Humidity and Temperature The diurnal cycle if no water vapor is added or removed from the air mass, then Relative Humidity decreases as Temperature increases The diurnal cycle is the inverse of Temperature
30 Air typically dries out during the day IG4e_04_06
31 Dew Point Temperature as air is cooled it eventually becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) the temperature of saturation is called the dew point temperature if cooling continues, condensation begins and dew forms
32 Dewpoint Temperatures Dewpoint temperature is a measure of the water vapor content of the air It is not a measure of temperature!!!!
33 Water vapor saturation and atmospheric pressure; at what Temperature does water boil
34 The Adiabatic Process when a gas expands, its volume increases and its pressure and temperature decrease. It gets cold. air temperature change solely as a result of air expansion or contraction is a result of the adiabatic process the adiabatic lapse rate is used to quantify how the temperature of air decreases as it rises or increases as it ascends lapse rates differ for dry (unsaturated) and wet (saturated) air masses
35 Trading Height for Heat There are two kinds of static energy in the parcel: potential energy (due to its height) and enthalpy (due to the motions of the molecules that make it up) S c T g z p Change in static energy Change in enthalpy Change in gravitational potential energy Physical Geography students are not responsible for this material.
36 Trading Height for Heat (cont d) Suppose a parcel exchanges no energy with its surroundings we call this state adiabatic, meaning, not gaining or losing energy p 0 c T g z p c T g z T g (9.81 ms ) 9.8 z c (1004 J K 1 kg 1 ) p 2 K km 1 Dry adiabatic lapse rate ~ 10 /1000 m Physical Geography students are not responsible for this material.
37 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) - decrease in temperature with altitude: 10 C/1000m
38 Wet (Saturated) Adiabatic Lapse Rate ranges from 4 to 9 degrees C per 1000 meters varies because it depends on temperature, pressure and water vapour content less than the DALR because as water condenses it releases latent heat, so the temperature decrease is less
39 Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate as a parcel of air rises, it cools and becomes saturated at the dew point dew point lapse rate (1.8 degrees per 1000 meters) means that the dew point of the air parcel decreases as the air rises when it reaches its dew point, condensation occurs (lifting condensation level) Figure 4.10, p. 127
40 Water vapor is distributed throughout the atmosphere Generally largest amounts are found close to the surface, decreasing aloft Closest to the source - evaporation from ground, plants, lakes and ocean Warmer air can hold more water vapor than colder air
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44 Stability & Instability A rock, like a parcel of air, that is in stable equilibrium will return to its original position when pushed. If the rock instead accelerates in the direction of the push, it was in unstable equilibrium.
45 Stability in the atmosphere An Initial Perturbation Stable Unstable Neutral If an air parcel is displaced from its original height it can: Return to its original height - Stable Accelerate upward because it is buoyant - Unstable Stay at the place to which it was displaced - Neutral
46 Vertical Motion and Temperature Rising air expands, using energy to push outward against its environment, adiabatically cooling the air A parcel of air may be forced to rise or sink, and change temperature relative to environmental air
47 Environmental Lapse rate The lapse rate is the change of temperature with height in the atmosphere There are two kinds of lapse rates: Environmental Lapse Rate (~ 4 /1000 m) What you would measure with a weather balloon Parcel Lapse Rate The change of temperature that an air parcel would experience when it is displaced vertically This is assumed to be an adiabatic process (i.e., no heat exchange occurs across parcel boundary)
48 The Adiabatic Process when a gas expands, its volume increases and its pressure and temperature decrease air temperature change solely as a result of air expansion or contraction is a result of the adiabatic process the adiabatic lapse rate is used to quantify how the temperature of air decreases as it rises or increases as it ascends lapse rates differ for dry (unsaturated) and wet (saturated) air masses
49 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) - decrease in temperature with altitude: 10 C/1000m Figure 4.10, p. 127
50 Wet (Saturated) Adiabatic Lapse Rate ranges from 4 to 9 degrees C per 1000 meters varies because it depends on temperature, pressure and water vapour content less than the DALR because as water condenses it releases latent heat, so the temperature decrease is less
51 Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate as a parcel of air rises, it cools and becomes saturated at the dew point dew point lapse rate (1.8 degrees per 1000 meters) means that the dew point of the air parcel decreases as the air rises when it reaches its dew point, condensation occurs (lifting condensation level) Figure 4.10, p. 127
52 What if the environmental lapse rate falls between the moist and dry adiabatic lapse rates? The atmosphere is unstable for saturated air parcels but stable for unsaturated air parcels This situation is termed conditionally unstable This is the typical situation in the atmosphere Conditionally unstable air
53 Clouds Made up of water droplets and/or ice particles form when air is saturated AND contains particles (condensation nuclei) e.g. dust, salts water can remain in liquid state below freezing (supercooled) to as low as -12 C (10 F)
54 Clouds types - classified by altitude high (eg. cirrus) middle (eg. altocumulus) low (eg stratus, cumulus) Figure 4.11, p. 128 thunder cloud (cumulonimbus) extends from low to high
55 Fog cloud layer at or close to the Earth s surface radiation fog forms at night when air near the ground falls below the dew point temperature advection fog forms when warm moist air moves over a cool surface sea fog forms when cool marine air comes in contact with cold ocean currents
56 Precipitation Precipitation formation requires: growth of droplets in clouds ice crystal process - ice particles act as freezing nuclei coalescence process - large droplets collide with smaller ones and coalesce
57 Precipitation produced in clouds well below the dew point temperature usually near cloud tops all precipitation begins as frozen water if it reaches the ground in liquid form - rain, drizzle (small drops)
58 Types of Precipitation: freezing rain (ice crystals freeze onto a frozen surface) snow (ice crystals have not melted) sleet (ice crystals melt as they fall) hail (melting and refreezing crystals that form in thunder clouds)
59 Precipitation: three mechanisms Convectional Orographic Frontal (cyclonic)
60 1.) Convectional warm air rises cools to dew point temperature - clouds form latent heat release adds energy and increases updraft may produce thunderstorms
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63 2.) Orographic lifting air rising over a highland intercepting slope = windward slope (wetter) change in temperature alters the humidity leeward slope (drier) (rain shadow)
64 IG4e_04_17
65 3.) Frontal (cyclonic) precipitation where air masses with different temperatures come together warm air lifted by cold dense air along a weather front leads to frontal precipitation Cold air Warm air
66 Thunderstorms are intense convectional storms associated with massive cumulonimbus clouds. They may produce heavy rains, hail, thunder, lightening, and intense downdrafts (microbursts) which may create hazards for humans Figure 4.21, p. 137
67 Air Quality Air pollutants are undesirable gases, aerosols, and particulates injected into the atmosphere by human and natural causes Figure E4.1, p. 143
68 Smog over China
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87 Cloud type summary
88 High Clouds High clouds White in day; red/orange/yellow at sunrise and sunset Made of ice crystals Cirrus Thin and wispy Move west to east Indicate fair weather Cirrocumulus Less common than cirrus Small, rounded white puffs individually or in long rows (fish scales; mackerel sky) Cirrostratus Thin and sheetlike Sun and moon clearly visible through them Halo common Often precede precipitation
89 Cirrus
90 Cirrus Cirrus Display at Dawn
91 Cirrocumulus
92 Cirrocumulus Cirrocumulus at Sunset
93 Cirrostratus Cirrostratus with Halo
94 Contrails
95 Middle Clouds Altocumulus <1 km thick mostly water drops Gray, puffy Differences from cirrocumulus Larger puffs More dark/light contrast Altostratus Gray, blue-gray Often covers entire sky Sun or moon may show through dimly Usually no shadows
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97 Altostratus Alto Stratus Castellanus
98 Altocumulus
99 Altocumulus Alto Cumulus Radiatus
100 Alto Cumulus Alto Cumulus Undulatus
101 Low Clouds Stratus Uniform, gray Resembles fog that does not reach the ground Usually no precipitation, but light mist/drizzle possible Stratocumulus Low lumpy clouds Breaks (usually) between cloud elements Lower base and larger elements than altostratus Nimbostratus Dark gray Continuous light to moderate rain or snow Evaporating rain below can form stratus fractus
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103 Stratus fractus
104 Looking down on an eastern Atlantic stratus deck
105 Stratiform cloud layers
106 Stratocumulus cloud streets Stratus undulatus
107 Stratus A Layer of Stratocumulus Cloud viewed from above
108 Vertically developed clouds Cumulus Puffy cotton Flat base, rounded top More space between cloud elements than stratocumulus Cumulonimbus Thunderstorm cloud Very tall, often reaching tropopause Individual or grouped Large energy release from water vapor condensation
109 Cumulonimbus with Pileaus caps
110 Cumulonimbus Clouds Spawn Tornadoes
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