Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes
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1 Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes VOLUME II Observations and Theory of Weather Systems HOWARD B. BLUESTEIN New York Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 1993
2 Contents 1. THE BEHAVIOR OF SYNOPTIC-SCALE, EXTRATROPICAL SYSTEMS The Formation of Surface Pressure Systems The effects of differential vorticity advection The effects of temperature advection The effects of surface friction The effects of diabatic heating The effects of upslope and downslope motions The effects of static stability The combined effects of the quasigeostrophic forcing functions Climatology of cyclogenesis and anticyclogenesis at the surface over North America The Movement of Surface Pressure Systems The effects of the forcing functions in the quasigeostrophic (o equation The effects of orography Some illustrations of the application of quasigeostrophic theory An analytic model for the quasigeostrophic diagnosis of synoptic-scale Systems The climatology of 1000-mb height and 1000-mb temperature The Formation of Upper-Level Systems The Movement of Upper-Level Troughs and Ridges Short waves and long waves Group velocity Blocking The climatology of height and temperature at Standard pressure levels in the troposphere 82
3 x CONTENTS 1.5 Instability, Cyclogenesis, and Anticyclogenesis The concept of instability Application of Sanders' analytic model to the baroclinic instability process Baroclinic instability and the flow pattern Special types of cyclogenesis and anticyclogenesis The Classical Midlatitude Cyclone A quasigeostrophic analysis of the typical life cycle of a midlatitude System The cloud pattern in a classical midlatitude cyclone Cyclogenesis along the east coast of the United States Cyclogenesis in the lee of the Colorado Rockies Cyclogenesis in the lee of the Alps Analysis of Midlatitude, Synoptic-Scale Systems using the Balance Equations Analysis of Midlatitude, Synoptic-Scale Systems using a Generalized Height-Tendency Equation Analysis of Midlatitude, Synoptic-Scale Systems using Isentropic Potential Vorticity Thinking Historical review The observed distribution of IPV in the atmosphere Upper-level IPV anomalies Surface potential-temperature anomalies Diagnosis of vertical motion associated with IPV anomalies embedded in a baroclinic zone Applications of "IPV thinking" for timedependent dynamical processes The motion of upper-level troughs and ridges in the baroclinic westerlies The motion of surface cyclones and anticyclones on level terrain The effects of orography on the motion of surface cyclones and anticyclones The formation of upper-level Systems The formation of surface Systems Lateral and vertical propagation of waves at upper levels 214
4 CONTENTS The effects of diabatic heating and friction on upper-level IPV anomalies 216 Notes 219 References 219 Problems FRONTS AND JETS The Relationship between Fronts and Jets Consequences of the Cross-Front Scale The front as a discontinuity in temperature The front as a discontinuity in temperature gradient Kinematics and Thermodynamics of Frontogenesis Two-dimensional frontogenesis Three-dimensional frontogenesis Observational Aspects of Fronts The surface front The middle-upper tropospheric front Dynamics of Surface Frontogenesis Quasigeostrophic frontogenesis The geostrophic-momentum approximation and semigeostrophic frontogenesis The effects of friction The effects of latent-heat release The relationship between frontogenesis and cyclogenesis Density-current dynamics, trapped density currents, and barrier jets Orographically trapped gravity waves Dynamics of Middle-Upper Tropospheric Frontogenesis Quasigeostrophic middle-upper tropospheric frontogenesis The geostrophic-momentum approximation and semigeostrophic middle-upper tropospheric frontogenesis Observational Aspects of Jets and Jet Streaks The Polar-Front jet The subtropical jet The low-level jet Jet streaks 392
5 xii 2.8 Dynamics of Jets and Jet Streaks The formation of jets and jet streaks The vertical-motion field near jets and jet streaks Jet-streak propagation Coupling of an upper-level jet streak to the wind field below 405 Notes 407 References 408 Problems PRECIPITATION SYSTEMS IN THE MIDLATITUDES Introduction Types of Precipitation The Classification of Precipitation Systems Convective Systems The dynamical equations for cumulus convection A brief history of thunderstorm research The onset of deep convection Continuity of water vapor The temperature and moisture stratification in the environment The role of vertical shear Summary of the effects of vertical shear on storm type Severe-weather phenomena The mesoscale Organization of convective cells Nonconvective Systems Characteristics of nonconvective Systems Conditional Symmetrie instability The "feeder-seeder" process Ducted gravity waves 563 Notes 569 References 569 Problems 577 Selected answers to Problems 577 Appendix 1. Solution to Sanders'Analytic Model 580 A.1 Vertical Velocity 580 A.2 Height Tendency 582 A.3 Velocity ofsurface Features 584 Index 585
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