11/18/2008. General Theory of Relativity (1915) Cosmologists had decided that the universe was eternal (rather than created) Problem:

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1 Cosmologists had decided that the universe was eternal (rather than created) General Theory of Relativity (1915) Problem: Gravitational attraction would cause the universe to collapse. 1

2 Solution: Addition of the cosmological constant to the general theory creates an antigravitational effect Result: Preservation of the eternal, static universe. Spacetime Conversion Factors Matter Russian mathematician On the possibility of a world with constant negative curvature of space (1924) What happens if the Cosmological Constant (Λ) has different values? What happens if the universe is expanding? 2

3 1 m k Everything is either mass or energy; together they determine the geometry of the universe. Suggested that in an expanding universe, galaxies should be retreating at a velocity proportional to their distance from us (1927) Proposed a compact, primeval atom or Cosmic Egg that exploded, expanded and evolved into the universe as we see it today. Einstein commented Your math is correct, but your physics is abominable. 3

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6 Studying variable stars and found that brighter ones appeared to have longer periods. Estimating period of variability allowed estimation of their distance 6

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8 Brightness 11/18/2008 The Cepheids are huddled together and can be assumed to be relatively close together compared with distance to earth [200,000 light years] Therefore, a Cepheid in this sample that appears twice as bright as another in the sample is twice as intrinsically luminous. Period (days) Log [Period (days)] Leavitt, Henrietta S. "1777 Variables in the Magellanic Clouds". Annals of Harvard College Observatory. LX(IV) (1908) ,000x brighter than the Sun 800x brighter than the Sun With Cepheids Easily identifiable Relatively plentiful and scattered throughout the universe Can measure intrinsic luminosity from period Need calibration Ejnar Hertzsprung (1913) was able to directly measure the distance to a Cepheid 8

9 1. Find a Cepheid 2. Measure the period and thus derive the intrinsic luminosity (how bright it is) 3. Measure the apparent luminosity (how bright it appears to be) 4. Work out the distance that accounts for the difference. Redshift (objects moving away) versus Blueshift (objects getting closer) In 1923, found a cepheid in Andromeda and (measuring the distance) found it to lie beyond the Milky Way The nebulae were galaxies and the universe was full of them! 9

10 Linear relationship between a galaxy s distance and apparent recessional velocity Implies universe is expanding First observational support for Lemaître s prediction in

11 A B C D E F G C D E F There was both creation and evolution of the universe 11

12 Howard Robinson (US) and Arthur Walker (England) independently explored these ideas in the 1930 s. Offers an exact solution of Einstein's field equations of general relativity Describes a simply connected, homogeneous [same properties in all locations], isotropic [same properties when viewed in any direction from any location], expanding or contracting universe. Ralph Alpher, [Hans Bethe] & George Gamow pictured the early universe as a dense soup of protons, neutrons and electrons. Bigger and bigger atoms were built by fusion in the heat of the Big Bang. Success: Model could explain why the universe is currently 90% Hydrogen and 9% Helium. Failure: Model could not explain the formation of elements heavier than Helium. 12

13 With Alpher & Robert Herman (1948) predicted an echo of the Big Bang Alpher & Herman (1949) predicted that the radiation should be in the radio region of the EM spectrum With Thomas Gold & Hermann Bondi proposed the Steady State Model The Universe was indeed expanding but new matter was being formed in the gaps between the galaxies Thus the universe evolves but remains unchanged and eternal Discovery of young galaxies and quasars at the far reaches of the universe Uneven distribution went against Steady State model which claimed the universe should be similar everywhere 13

14 Discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation as a background noise (1964) Nobel Prize in 1978 Was this sufficient evidence for acceptance of the Big Bang? Confirms black-body spectrum of CMB as expected Discovery of variations (anisotropies) in the CMB which indicated tiny variations in the density of the early universe These variations seeded galaxy development The COBE results are the greatest discovery of the century, if not of all times. 14

15 The Nobel committee stated that COBE can be regarded as the starting point for cosmology as a precision science. 15

16 High-precision CMB mapping yields age of the universe of ± 0.12 billion years 16

17 17

18 The result would inevitably be a state of universal rest and death, if the universe were finite and left to obey existing laws. But it is impossible to conceive a limit to the extent of matter in the universe; and therefore science points rather to an endless progress, through an endless space, of action involving the transformation of potential energy into palpable motion and hence into heat, than to a single finite mechanism, running down like a clock, and stopping for ever. (Kelvin 1865) Big Rip Big Crunch Big Bounce Multiverse 18

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