Test 4 Final Review. 5/2/2018 Lecture 25

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1 Test 4 Final Review 5/2/2018 Lecture 25

2 Apparent daily motion of celestial objects is due to earth s rotation

3 Seasons are created due to the title of the Earth relative to the Sun

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5 Phases of the moon due to the relative potion of the Sun and Moon relative to Earth

6 Eclipses Lunar eclipse: When the Earth passes directly between the Sun and the Moon. Earth Moon Sun Solar eclipse: When the Moon passes directly between the Sun and the Earth. Sun Moon Earth

7 Moon's orbit tilted compared to Earth-Sun orbital plane: Sun Moon Earth 5.2 o Side view Moon's orbit slightly elliptical: Moon Earth Distance varies by ~14% Top view, exaggerated ellipse

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10 Tides A feature of oceans (but solid materials have small tides too). Two high and two low tides per day. Tides are due to the gravitational pull being stronger on side of Earth closest to it (Sun causes smaller tides) Earth-Moon gravity keeps them orbiting each other. But side of Earth closest to Moon has slightly stronger pull to Moon => bulges towards it. Other side has weaker pull => bulges away compared to rest of Earth. The Earth spins once a day while the bulge always points towards and away from the Moon => high and low tides.

11 Tidal locking We always see the same face of the Moon. This means: period of orbit = period of spin Top view of Moon orbiting Earth Earth Why? The tidal bulge in the solid Moon elongates it slightly (2-3 km) along an axis pointing to Earth. If orbit period is faster than the spin period, tidal bulge would have to move around surface of Moon, creating friction, which slows the Moon s spin down until tidal bulge no longer migrates around.

12 By taking the Sun as the center of our world, it directly contradicted the Church. Earth is just another planet. If Earth is orbiting the Sun, why don t we feel this motion? If the giant celestial sphere is rotating, the strain on those objects would be tremendous. Copernicus could not prove that Earth revolves about the Sun. Ptolemy s model, if adjusted, could still work. Both models had good prediction power. Illustration from Copernicus's work showing heliocentric model There was little motivation to carry out observations or experiments to distinguish between competing cosmological theories

13 Kepler s First Law The orbits of the planets are elliptical (not circular) with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.

14 Kepler s Second Law A line connecting the Sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times. This means: Planets move faster when closer to the Sun.

15 Kepler s Third Law The square of a planet s orbital period is proportional to the cube of its semi-major axis. P: Period the time to complete one full orbit a: semi-major axis P 2 is proportional to a 3 P 2 α a 3 a b This means: The larger a planet s orbit, the longer the period

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21 Earthlike and Jupiter-like

22 The planets formed by the accretion of planetesimals and the accumulation of gases in the solar nebula

23 The Earth s atmosphere has changed substantially over our planet s history The Earth s atmosphere differs from those of the other terrestrial planets in its chemical composition, circulation pattern, and temperature profile The Earth s atmosphere evolved from being mostly water vapor to being rich in carbon dioxide A strong greenhouse effect kept the Earth warm enough for water to remain liquid and to permit the evolution of life

24 The Greenhouse Effect Solar energy is the energy source for the atmosphere In the greenhouse effect, some of this energy is trapped by infrared absorbing gases in the atmosphere, raising the Earth s surface temperature

25 Now: Impact theory preferred Mars-sized object hit the forming Earth, ejecting material from the upper mantle which went into orbit around Earth. Similar spin orientations. Moon samples indicate that the Moon's surface was once molten. The Moon has a relatively small iron core. Evidence exists of similar collisions in other star systems Giant collisions are consistent with the leading theories of the formation of the Solar System.

26 Evidence for Past Surface Water "runoff channels" or dry rivers "outflow channels" teardrop "islands" in outflow channels standing water erosion in craters?

27 Evidence for Water on Mars Now subsurface ice Phoenix Lander (2008) Deployable arm

28 Bulk Properties of Terrestrial and Jovian Planets All Jovian planets have strong magnetic fields Jovians are about as dense as water (1000 kg/m 3 ) Very cold Way more massive

29 Jupiter s and Saturn s Interior Because of the large pressure and temperature of Jupiter s and Saturn s interior, hydrogen and helium compresses into its metallic state. No direct information is available about Jupiter s interior, but we know that it has a solid rocky core. Jupiter flattens because of its fast rotation. It is 7% fatter around the middle. It would be much more pronounced if the planet lacked a solid core. The metallic hydrogen and helium are great conductors and are the source of the planet s magnetic field

30 Both Uranus and Neptune may have a rocky core surrounded by a mantle of water and ammonia Water and ammonia have been compressed into a slushy. Uranus and Neptune contain a higher proportion of heavy elements than Jupiter and Saturn No metallic hydrogen and helium. The pressure is not large enough, ammonia water slushy may be able to explain the existing magnetic field

31 L3 L5 L4 ~ 5 AU

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33 The Proton-Proton Chain 0.7% mass deficit 6x10 11 kg/s

34 How far away are stars? Earth-baseline parallax good for solar distances Earth-orbit parallax good for nearby stars

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37 Variable Stars Recall that the apparent brightness of an object decreases with the square of the distance to that object. A light curve represents how bright a star is as a function of time What would the light curve of our Sun look like?

38 Type1a Supernovae Type1a supernovae always explode at 1.4 solar masses -> always have the same brightness. Crucially they also have an easily identified light curve. Using Cephied variable stars to measure the distance to supernovae, astronomers can use typ1a supernovae light curves to measure distances.

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40 Giant and supergiant stars lie above the main sequence, while white dwarfs are below the main sequence

41 More Massive Stars

42 The general theory of relativity is our most accurate description of gravitation

43 This dilemma was resolved by observing parts of the Galaxy outside the disk

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46 When objects fall into a black hole, they form into a accretion disk. As the object falls, it coverts its gravitational potential energy into Kinetic Energy. When in falling matter experiences any kind of friction on its way down, heat is produced. The accretion disk is whole clouds of interstellar gas and dust; they may radiate away as much as percent of their mass before disappearing (E=mc 2 ).

47 Quasar Stellar Spectrum Quasars are among the most luminous objects in the galaxy to be visible over such enormous distances. Oldest quasar created ~700 million years after the big bang. ~13 Billion light years away from Earth. Today, why are most super massive black holes quiescent?

48 Hubble s Law

49 More Super clusters note the filamentary shapes

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